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Shea trees (Vitellaria paradoxa) are common in African countries such as Nigeria, Ghana, Uganda, Sudan, and others. When fully ripe, the Shea tree's green fruit turns yellow. The tree is well-known and valued for its versatility. Its entire composition is useful in the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries. Among its applications is the production of butter from the nuts, while the rest of the fruit is left to rot or discarded. This study focuses on using other parts of the fruit to create a new product, reduce waste, and expand the Shea value chain. Three formulations of Shea fruit juice were created. The juice were evaluated for nutritional, physicochemical, and mineral compositions. The nutritional composition revealed a high moisture content that ranged from 84.39 to 93.01%, high carbohydrate and caloric values, ranging from 5.84 to 8.96% and 33.51 to 67.31%, respectively. It also had a high concentration of vitamin C (16.45 - 38.99 percent). The mineral composition was observed to increase as the Shea pulp percentage increased. Magnesium was observed to be higher in sample C (36.71±0.24) while sample A recorded a lower magnesium content (18.04±0.06). Calcium was also found to be present in high concentrations (30.07 - 50.64 %). The juice's potassium content ranged from 58.6 - 50.54% in sample C to 24.6 - 60.16% in sample A. The physicochemical analysis revealed a close range of p H values (5.37 - 6.06 %) between the samples and the control, making the juice less susceptible to spoilage. Overall, the results presented a high-quality juice that could compete favorably in the market with other fruit juices.

Leaves of Vitellaria paradoxa, also called “Shea butter tree”, are used in traditional medicine to treat various symptoms including malaria fever, dysentery, or skin infections. Composition of the dichloromethane extract of V. paradoxa leaves possessing antiparasitic activities was investigated. Five pentacyclic triterpenic acids together with 6 ester derivatives were isolated and identified by standards comparison, MS and 1H-NMR analysis. Corosolic, maslinic, and tormentic coumaroyl esters and their corresponding triterpenic acids were isolated from this plant for the first time. The antiparasitic activities of the 11 isolated compounds were evaluated in vitro on Plasmodium falciparum, Trypanosoma brucei brucei, and Leishmania mexicana mexicana and their selectivity determined by cytotoxicity evaluation on WI38 cells. None of the isolated compounds showed good antiplasmodial activity. The antitrypanosomal activity of individual compounds was in general higher than their antileishmanial one. One isolated triterpenic ester mixture in equilibrium, 3-O-p-E/Z-coumaroyltormentic acids, showed an attractive promising antitrypanosomal activity (IC50 = 0.7 µM) with low cytotoxicity (IC50= 44.5 µM) compared to the corresponding acid. Acute toxicity test on this ester did not show any toxicity at the maximal cumulative dose of 100 mg/kg intraperitoneally on mice. In vivo efficacy evaluation of this compound, at 50 mg/kg by intraperitoneal route on a T. b. brucei-infected mice model, showed a significant parasitemia reduction on day 4 post-infection together with 33.3% survival improvement. Further bioavailability and PK studies are needed along with mode of action investigations to further assess the potential of this molecule.

The aim of the present study was to investigate the polyphenolic profile and the anti-inflammatory and anti-nociceptive activities of four traditionally used medicinal plants from Burkina Faso: Parkia biglobosa, Detarium microcarpum, Vitellaria paradoxa and Sclerocarya birrea. The analysis of the main phenolic compounds was performed by the HPLC-UV-MS method. The anti-inflammatory effect of the aqueous bark extracts was investigated by the λ-carrageenan-induced rat paw edema test. The anti-nociceptive activity was evaluated by the Randall–Selitto test under inflammatory conditions. Seven phenolic acids (gallic, protocatechuic, gentisic, vanillic, p-coumaric, ferulic, and syringic acids), and three flavonoids (catechin, epicatechin, and quercitrin) were identified in the plant samples. High contents of gallic acid were determined in the D. microcarpum, P. biglobosa and S. birrea extracts (190–300 mg/100 g), and V. paradoxa extract was the richest in epicatechin (173.86 mg/100 g). The λ-carrageenan-induced inflammation was significantly reduced (p < 0.001) by the P. biglobosa and D. microcarpum extracts (400 mg/kg p.o.). Under the inflammatory conditions, a significant anti-nociceptive activity (p < 0.001) was obtained after 2–3 h from the induction of inflammation. The effects of the tested extracts could be related to the presence of polyphenols and could be useful in the management of certain inflammatory diseases.

Sabri Sudirman, Chun-Kai Chen, Bing-Ting Long, Heng-Wei Chang, David Tsou, Zwe-Ling Kong Department of Food Science, National Taiwan Ocean University, Keelung City 20224, TaiwanCorrespondence: Zwe-Ling KongDepartment of Food Science, National Taiwan Ocean University, Keelung City 20224, TaiwanTel/Fax +886 2 24622192 Ext. 5130Email kongzl@mail.ntou.edu.twPurpose: To investigate the ameliorative effects of Vitellaria paradoxa (VP) nut extract for an anterior cruciate ligament transection with medial meniscectomy (ACLT+MMx)-induced osteoarthritis (OA) in high-fat diet (HFD)-induced obese rats.Methods: The rats were fed by HFD for 5 weeks before surgery-induced OA. Rats were treated orally with three different doses of VP nut extract (111.6, 223.2, and 446.4 mg/kg) for 8 weeks.Results: The VP nut triterpene-rich extract decreased the level of triglycerides and increased high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol. The level of nitric oxide, interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor-α decreased after treatment with VP nut triterpene-rich extract, especially in high-doses. The VP nut triterpene-rich extracts also alleviated swelling in the knee OA, weight-bearing difference, and suppressed cartilage degradation.Conclusion: The Vitellaria paradoxa nut triterpene-rich extract suppressed proinflammatory mediators and attenuated the cartilage degradation and pain in osteoarthritis with an obesity rat model. As such, Vitellaria paradoxa nut triterpene-rich extract can be used as an alternative for osteoarthritis treatment.Keywords: medial meniscectomy, obesity, osteoarthritis, triterpene, Vitellaria paradoxa

Sabri Sudirman, Chun-Kai Chen, Bing-Ting Long, Heng-Wei Chang, David Tsou, Zwe-Ling Kong Department of Food Science, National Taiwan Ocean University, Keelung City 20224, TaiwanCorrespondence: Zwe-Ling KongDepartment of Food Science, National Taiwan Ocean University, Keelung City 20224, TaiwanTel/Fax +886 2 24622192 Ext. 5130Email kongzl@mail.ntou.edu.twPurpose: To investigate the ameliorative effects of Vitellaria paradoxa (VP) nut extract for an anterior cruciate ligament transection with medial meniscectomy (ACLT+MMx)-induced osteoarthritis (OA) in high-fat diet (HFD)-induced obese rats.Methods: The rats were fed by HFD for 5 weeks before surgery-induced OA. Rats were treated orally with three different doses of VP nut extract (111.6, 223.2, and 446.4 mg/kg) for 8 weeks.Results: The VP nut triterpene-rich extract decreased the level of triglycerides and increased high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol. The level of nitric oxide, interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor-α decreased after treatment with VP nut triterpene-rich extract, especially in high-doses. The VP nut triterpene-rich extracts also alleviated swelling in the knee OA, weight-bearing difference, and suppressed cartilage degradation.Conclusion: The Vitellaria paradoxa nut triterpene-rich extract suppressed proinflammatory mediators and attenuated the cartilage degradation and pain in osteoarthritis with an obesity rat model. As such, Vitellaria paradoxa nut triterpene-rich extract can be used as an alternative for osteoarthritis treatment.Keywords: medial meniscectomy, obesity, osteoarthritis, triterpene, Vitellaria paradoxa

Forest species are very abundant in African ecosystems and contribute to the economy of households, through their use in cosmetics, pharmaceuticals and agri-food. Among these species,Vitellaria paradoxa(sapotaceae) is a tree that can reach about fifteen meters, which grows exclusively in wooded savannas in Africa. Its area of distribution is Senegal, Mali, Burkina Faso, Guinea Bissau, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Nigeria, Cameroon, Chad and Ethiopia. The purpose of this study was to highlight the forms of valuation of shea butter in the food industry and in cosmetics. To do this, we carried out a literature review. The results revealed that shea butter is a fat extracted from the kernels of the shea fruit. It is obtained by shelling, drying and crushing the nuts. Crushed seeds and then mixed with water. Once immersed in water, the impurities will come out naturally from the butter and thus settle in the bottom of the container. Then, the butter that has remained on the surface is collected, and kneaded, to be cooked for a long time at a very low temperature. The water evaporates, leaving only room for the oil, which will be manually filtered through muslin and then conditioned. Once at room temperature, the butter (melted into oil) regains its solid and melting texture. This butter, for its properties, is on considerable importance in food industry and cosmetics. Thus, shea butter is used in cooking (edible oils), in pastry products, confectionery and in chocolate industry as a substitute for cocoa butter. In cosmetics, it is best known for its moisturizing and softening properties of the skin. It is also used as an excipient in cosmetic formulations such as ointments, shampoos, toilet soaps and in creams.&nbsp

Trait diversity is crucial in undertaking the domestication of useful species such as Vitellaria paradoxa which makes a significant contribution to the rural household economy in Africa. This study aims to document the criteria farmers use to distinguish shea trees; how they vary according to age, education level and sociolinguistic group; and their perception of trees’ abundance and production. We surveyed 405 respondents across shea parklands in Benin using a semi-structured questionnaire. We used the Kruskal-Wallis test to evaluate the influence of sociodemographic attributes on relative criteria citation frequency and principal components analysis to characterize farmers’ perception on morphotypes’ abundance, fruits, and butter yields. The five most cited criteria were fruit size (55.5%), tree fertility (15.40%), bark colour (10.51%), timing of production (5.38%), and pulp taste (3.42%). The citation frequency of criteria varied significantly depending on the sociodemographic factors considered. Trees having small fruit (‘Yanki’) were reported to be widespread and high fruit/nuts and butter producers. Farmers perceived five important traits with variable importance depending on the sociocultural factors studied. This finding is a key step toward the development of a shea improvement program that could focus on the morphotype Yanki reported to potentially be a high fruit and butter producer.

Background Vitellaria paradoxa (V. paradoxa) is a plant used in traditional medicine in the treatment of many diseases including diabetes mellitus. Although the different parts of this plant are used empirically as antidiabetic drug, no scientific work to our knowledge has yet been undertaken to evaluate its effects on blood glucose, and lipid and antioxidant parameters of diabetic animals. The objective of this study is therefore to evaluate the hypoglycaemic, hypolipidemic and antioxidant activities of the aqueous extract of V. paradoxa barks in diabetic rats. Methods Diabetes was induced by intraperitoneal injection of alloxan (120 mg/kg bw). Thirty male albino rats were divided into groups and orally treated for 14 days with distilled water, glibenclamide (2.5 mg/kg bw) and aqueous extract of V. paradoxa (125, 250 and 500 mg/kg bw). Glycaemia, insulin level, relative body weight, hepatic glycogen level, some liver enzymes, and lipid and antioxidant parameters were evaluated. Results The results showed that the extract caused a significant increase in relative body weight, insulin level, HDL-cholesterol, hepatic glycogen rate, and fructose-1,6-biphosphate and glucokinase activities. A significant decrease in glycaemia, glucose-6-phosphatase activity, total cholesterol, triglycerides and LDL-cholesterol were also observed after the administration of V. paradoxa. Glutathione level and the activities of catalase and superoxide dismutase increased significantly while the nitric oxide and malondialdehyde levels decreased significantly in the liver of animals treated with the extract of V. paradoxa. Conclusion These results justify the hypoglycaemic, hypolipidemic and antioxidant effects of aqueous extract of V. paradoxa barks, which can reduce the complications associated with diabetes.

Vitellaria paraodoxa(shea tree) is the source of shea seed from which the well-known shea butter is derived. The methanol extract of shea seed was evaluated for its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities using diclofenac sodium and ascorbic acid as standard respectively inin vitromethods. The anti-inflammatory activity was determined by inhibition of protein denaturation of bovine serum albumin (BSA) and erythrocyte membrane stabilization of human red blood cell. The antioxidant activity was evaluated using 1, 1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) and total antioxidant capacity (TAC) assays. The results showed that methanol extract ofV. paradoxaseed at different concentration protects the heat induced protein denaturation with the maximum percentage inhibition of 27% (IC50=303.0 µg/mL, p50=261.4 µg/mL, p50=31.47 µg/mL, p50=33.89 µg/mL, p50=8.95 µg/mL, p50=6.72 µg/mL, p50=51.79 µg/mL, p50=52.30 µg/mL, pV. paradoxaseed may possess strong anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities which could constitute a potential source for development of new therapy.&nbsp

A defining component of agroforestry parklands across Sahelo-Sudanian Africa (SSA), the shea tree (Vitellaria paradoxa) is central to sustaining local livelihoods and the farming environments of rural communities. Despite its economic and cultural value, however, not to mention the ecological roles it plays as a dominant parkland species, shea remains semi-domesticated with virtually no history of systematic genetic improvement. In truth, shea’s extended juvenile period makes traditional breeding approaches untenable; but the opportunity for genome-assisted breeding is immense, provided the foundational resources are available. Here we report the development and public release of such resources. Using the FALCON-Phase workflow, 162.6 Gb of long-read PacBio sequence data were assembled into a 658.7 Mbp, chromosome-scale reference genome annotated with 38,505 coding genes. Whole genome duplication (WGD) analysis based on this gene space revealed clear signatures of two ancient WGD events in shea’s evolutionary past, one prior to the Astrid-Rosid divergence (116–126 Mya) and the other at the root of the order Ericales (65–90 Mya). In a first genome-wide look at the suite of fatty acid (FA) biosynthesis genes that likely govern stearin content, the primary determinant of shea butter quality, relatively high copy numbers of six key enzymes were found (KASI, KASIII, FATB, FAD2, FAD3, and FAX2), some likely originating in shea’s more recent WGD event. To help translate these findings into practical tools for characterization, selection, and genome-wide association studies (GWAS), resequencing data from a shea diversity panel was used to develop a database of more than 3.5 million functionally annotated, physically anchored SNPs. Two smaller, more curated sets of suggested SNPs, one for GWAS (104,211 SNPs) and the other targeting FA biosynthesis genes (90 SNPs), are also presented. With these resources, the hope is to support national programs across the shea belt in the strategic, genome-enabled conservation and long-term improvement of the shea tree for SSA.

Vitellaria paradoxa Gaertn. is a multipurpose medicinal plant of the family Sapotaceae, and it has been widely used usually in the clinical traditional medicine as remedy for a wide range of diseases for several decades. In addition, the plant has also found applications in confectionery, cosmetics and soaps, and pharmaceuticals both locally and internationally. V. paradoxa, which has been identified with >150 phytoconstituents, is rich in oleanane-type triterpene acids and glycosides, such as paradoxosides A-E, tieghemelin A, parkiosides A-C, bassic acid, as well as flavonoids such as quercetin and catechin-type compounds. The extracts and the active constituents of V. paradoxa have been investigated for various pharmacological activities, including but not limited to anticancer, melanogenesis-inhibitory, antibacterial, anti-diabetic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-diarrhoeal, and antifungal activities. Additionally, V. paradoxa has also been utilized in nanoparticles (NPs) synthesis. These NPs among other things have shown significant antinociceptive and antiedematogenic activities as well as environmental friendly adsorptive properties for the removal of pollutants from pharmaceutical effluents. Overall, this review comprehensively examines the traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology, toxicology, clinical studies, and nanoparticles synthesized from V. paradoxa and their applications.

To understand how various factors influence phenological patterns like fruit production and the extent of phenological variability as survival strategy in different environments, fruit production of shea trees was studied in different agroclimatic zones (North Sudanian, South Sudanian and North Guinean) in Mali. Three sites were selected for this study and in each site; two stands (field and fallow) were concerned. For each stand, three “land use history or land management" i.e. new fields/fallows (1-5 years), medium (6-10 years) and old (10 years) were considered and permanent plots of 0.25 ha were established. 60 adult shea trees (DBH) ? 10 cm) were selected by site and monitored for fruit production assessment. The nested analysis of variance on the yield showed a significant site effect and significant effect of land use history within stand. However, stand effect within site was not significant. Factors like site and land management (land use history) appear to be determinant for fruit production of V. paradoxa. The site of Mperesso in the South Sudanian zone showed the highest fruit mean yield (11 kg/tree), significantly higher than the fruit mean yield observed at Daelan (7 kg/tree) in the North Sudanian zone and that observed at Nafégué (6 kg/tree) in the North Guinean zone. For field stand, old fields showed highest mean yield in all sites. For fallow stand, old fallows showed the lowest mean yield in most of cases. Different pattern was observed between field and fallow stands regarding the effect of land management. More fields are aged, more they influence positively fruit production whereas more fallows are aged, and more they influence negatively fruit production. This study highlighted the importance of land management practices and therefore, any domestication program to be successful should consider the potential effect of management practices.

Vitellaria paradoxa C. F. Gaertn is widely used in African traditional medicine as an anti-inflammatory remedy to treat rheumatism, gastric problems, diarrhea, and dysentery. The phytochemical investigation of the ethyl acetate extract of V. paradoxa stem bark collected in Burkina Faso led to the isolation of eight known and two triterpenes undescribed to date (7 and 10), in the free alcohol form or as acetyl and cinnamyl ester derivatives. The stereostructures of the new compounds were elucidated using HR-ESIMS and 1D and 2D NMR data. The isolated compounds were evaluated in vitro for their inhibitory effect on nitrite levels on murine macrophages J774 stimulated with the lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Among all the compounds tested, lupeol cinnamate (3) and betulinic acid (5) showed a beneficial effect in reducing nitrite levels produced after LPS stimulation.

Vitellaria paradoxa is an important economical tree in Africa. In this study, the complete chloroplast genome (cpDNA) sequence of V. paradoxa was determined from Illumina HiSeq pair-end sequencing data. The cpDNA is 159,725 bp in length, contains a large single copy region (LSC) of 88,720 bp and a small single copy region (SSC) of 19,338 bp, which were separated by a pair of inverted repeat (IR) regions of 25,981 bp. The genome contains 130 genes, including 85 protein-coding genes, 8 ribosomal RNA genes, and 38 transfer RNA genes. The overall GC content of the whole genome is 36.7% and the corresponding values of the LSC, SSC, and IR regions are 34.6, 30.0, and 42.9%, respectively. Further phylogenomic analysis showed that V. paradoxa clustered together with Sideroxylon wightianum.

Backgroud Vitellaria paradoxa is a plant belonging to the Sapotaceae family and used in traditional medicine in the treatment of diabetes mellitus. The aim of this work was to evaluate the hypoglycemic, antidyslipidemic and antioxidant effects of V. paradoxa on type 2 diabetic rats. Methods To induce type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), animals were fed a high-fat diet for 4 weeks followed by an intraperitoneal injection of 35 mg/kg of streptozotocin. Diabetic rats were divided into groups and treated for 28 days with V. paradoxa extract (AEVP) at doses of 125, 250 and 500 mg/kg. Body weight, urine volume, food and water consumption were assessed at the start and end of treatment. The glucose tolerance test was performed on the last day of treatment. Blood samples were taken for the assay of biochemical parameters, organs (kidneys and liver) for markers of oxidative stress and pancreas for histological sections. Results AEVP (250 and 500 mg/kg) improved the drop in body weight, polyphagia, polydipsia and polyuria in diabetic rats. AEVP significantly reduced the concentrations of glucose, total cholesterol, triacylglycerol, urea, creatinine, activities of transaminases, and increased the levels of high density lipoprotein cholesterol and serum insulin. AEVP resulted in a decrease in malondialdehyde levels and an increase in catalase and superoxide dismutase activities. An increase in the size and number of islets in the pancreas has also been observed after administration of the extract. Conclusion AEVP has antidiabetic, antidyslipidemic and antioxidant properties, thus confirming its traditional use for the treatment of diabetes. These effects could be due to the presence of phytoconstituents, phenols and flavonoids presents in the plant extract.

Graphical abstract, Highlights • Ethanol leaf extract of Vitellaria paradoxa (ELVp) suppressed Sodium Arsenite (SA)-induced toxicity in male Wistar rats. • ELVp prevented SA-induced lipid peroxidation. • ELVp may induced apoptosis by elevating p53 and reducing BCL-2 expression. • ELVp has hepatoprotective and nephroprotective properties against SA-induced toxicities., The inadvertent exposure to arsenic has been associated with diverse diseases such as cancers. Vitellaria paradoxa is a medicinal plant with antidiabetic and antiproliferative properties. Here, we assessed the ameliorative role of Ethanol Leaf extract of Vitellaria paradoxa (ELVp) in Sodium Arsenite (SA) - induced toxicity in rats after oral treatment for two weeks as follows: Group 1 (Control, distilled water), Group 2 (Vitamin E, 100 mg/kg), Groups 3 and 4 (ELVp, 100 & 200 mg/kg respectively), Group 5 (SA, 2.5 mg/kg), Group 6 (SA + Vit E) and Group 7 (SA + ELVp (100 mg/kg) and Group 8 (SA + ELVp (200 mg/kg). The results indicated that SA significantly increased liver and kidney function markers and elevated platelet, white blood cell (WBC) count and malondialdehyde levels in rats. Additionally, SA decreased Red Blood Cell (RBC), Hemoglobin (HGB) and Hematocrit (HCT) levels in rats (p < 0.05). Sodium arsenite caused mild expression of BCL-2 protein> NF-Kb = p53 in the kidney of rats. However, ELVp ameliorated SA-induced toxicity in the liver and kidney of rats with respect to these markers. Overall, ELVp has hepatoprotective, nephroprotective and apoptotic properties against sodium arsenite-induced toxicity.

Premi UAB de la Fundació Autònoma Solidària (FAS) als millors Treballs de Fi de Grau sobre desenvolupament sostenible i justícia global, per grau i per àmbit de coneixement. 4a Edició, curs 2019/2020 Circular economy, as opposed to the linear economy, is based on the intersection of environmental, economic and social aspects, maintaining the value of resources as long as possible and minimizing waste. The shea tree (Vitellaria paradoxa) is a species traditionally exploited in sub-Saharan Africa. The main product obtained from its seeds, through a long and strenuous process for women, is shea butter. The main objective of this bibliographic review is to collect information on different ways to improve the process, the situation of women workers and the conservation of the species. Results are presented in 4 main lines. Firstly, the threats that affect the tree and certain recommendations for practices to improve its conservation. Secondly, different uses of the resources obtained from the shea. Thirdly, the study of the process and the provision of optimized methodologies to achieve greater efficiency. Finally, the current market situation is analysed, setting out the main threats and opportunities. It is concluded that, despite the difficult situation in the sector, the shea market offers great opportunities. To achieve them, the education of the population, the provision of efficient legislation and the attraction of stable funding sources are essential. Cooperatives would stand out as the best global option to the market. La economía circular, en oposición a la economía lineal, se basa en la intersección de los aspectos ambientales, económicos y sociales, manteniendo el valor de los recursos el mayor tiempo posible y minimizando el desperdicio. El árbol del karité (Vitellaria paradoxa) es una especie tradicionalmente explotada en el África subsahariana. El principal producto obtenido de sus semillas, a través de un proceso largo y extenuante para las mujeres, es la manteca de karité. El objetivo principal de esta revisión bibliográfica es recopilar información sobre diferentes formas de mejorar el proceso, la situación de las trabajadoras y la conservación de la especie. Los resultados se presentan en 4 líneas principales. En primer lugar, las amenazas que afectan al árbol y ciertas recomendaciones de prácticas para mejorar su conservación. En segundo lugar, diferentes usos de los recursos obtenidos del karité. En tercer lugar, el estudio del proceso y el aporte de metodologías optimizadas para lograr una mayor eficiencia. Finalmente, se analiza la situación actual del mercado, exponiendo las principales amenazas y oportunidades. Se concluye que, a pesar de la difícil situación en el sector, el mercado del karité ofrece grandes oportunidades. Para alcanzarlas, la educación de la población, la disposición de legislación eficiente y la captación de fuentes de financiación estables son esenciales. Las cooperativas destacarían como la mejor opción global para el mercado. L'economia circular, en oposició a l'economia lineal, es basa en la intersecció dels aspectes ambientals, econòmics i socials, mantenint el valor dels recursos el major temps possible i minimitzant el malbaratament. L'arbre del karité (Vitellaria paradoxa) és una espècie tradicionalment explotada a l'Àfrica subsahariana. El principal producte obtingut de les seves llavors, a través d'un procés llarg i extenuant per a les dones, és la mantega de karité. L'objectiu principal d'aquesta revisió bibliogràfica és recopilar informació sobre diferents formes de millorar el procés, la situació de les treballadores i la conservació de l'espècie. Els resultats es presenten en 4 línies principals. En primer lloc, les amenaces que afecten l'arbre i certes recomanacions de pràctiques per millorar la seva conservació. En segon lloc, diferents usos dels recursos obtinguts del karité. En tercer lloc, l'estudi del procés i l'aportació de metodologies optimitzades per aconseguir una major eficiència. Finalment, s'analitza la situació actual de mercat, exposant les principals amenaces i oportunitats. Es conclou que, tot i la difícil situació en el sector, el mercat del karité ofereix grans oportunitats. Per assolir-les, l'educació de la població, la disposició de legislació eficient i la captació de fonts de finançament estables són essencials. Les cooperatives destacarien com la millor opció global per al mercat.

In Western Burkina Faso, the host range of fruit flies was evaluated in three plant formations between May 2017 and April 2019. Samples of 61 potential hosts were collected and incubated for fruit fly emergence. Twenty-seven hosts including cultivated and wild fruit were identified. Among cultivated fruit species, mango, and guava were the most infested while high infestation incidences were observed in the fruit of the indigenous plants Vitellaria paradoxa, Annona senegalensis, Sarcocephalus latifolius, and Saba senegalensis. Low infestation rates were observed in Anacardium occidentale, Citrus species, Opilia celtidifolia, and Cissus populnea. The highest infestation index (1648.57 flies kg−1) was observed from V. paradoxa. Eleven new host fruit infested with many fruit fly species are reported in Burkina Faso. A total of 18 fruit fly species were reared; Bactrocera dorsalis (42.94%), Ceratitis cosyra (29.93%), and Ceratitis silvestrii (22.33%) dominated those that emerged. Four fruit fly species have been detected for the first time in Burkina Faso. The main suitable fruit hosts are abundant and available from May through August during the rainy season and become rare and have low infestation from November to April during the dry season. This is the first study of its kind in the region. This study shows that the three plant formations had an impact on population dynamics of the three tephritid species of economic importance in Western Burkina Faso. This information should be integrated into the development of a fruit fly pests management strategy.

This study focused on leaf and root density dynamics of the most dominant tree species (Vitellaria paradoxa) of West African savannas in two land use types (farmed land and forest). Ten trees located at least 100 m from each other were selected, with five trees each located in the field and in the forest. Five of the trees were of small-diameter [two in the fields (diameter at breast height or DBH 20.1–20.7 cm) and three in the forest (DBH 7.0–8.0–10.8 cm)] and five others were of large-diameter [three in the fields (DBH 38.2–81.8–81.9 cm) and two in the forest (DBH 20.1–20.7 cm)]. One near-vertical rhizotron was installed under each tree to evaluate root density while canopy openness, diffuse and directly transmitted light were monitored by taking hemispheric photograph monthly. After a two-year period of monitoring, the results revealed a strong seasonality in root density with peak root density observed during the rainy season in August and the lowest production during the dry season in April. Significant lowest canopy openness was observed from August to September while the highest occurred from March to May, which was found to be synchronous with fine root dynamics. The light interception followed the same trends as the leaf production. Furthermore, both mature and young trees showed significant higher root density in the fields compared to the forest while the mean values of all the parameters of canopy openness and light transmittance were higher in the forest than the fields.

In this paper, we examine the way a local manifestation of the globalization process, the boom in the shea trade in western Burkina Faso, has fueled socio-economic differentiation in shea activity as part of a wider differentiation process. We refer to the gender politics and agrarian change literatures to inform both within- and across-household mechanisms of differentiation. We analyze both the mechanisms of change and the resulting inequalities. Our results reveal the interplay between multiple drivers of change, and nuance the analysis of the winners and losers of globalization of shea activity.

The present study characterizes seed-related traits, phytochemical, physiochemical parameters and fatty acid profile of shea (Vitellaria paradoxa) seeds collected from the Kosubosu, Fufu and Sare areas of Kwara State, Nigeria to determine the effects of microclimate on seed morphology, biochemical and oil constituents. Seed morphological data were analyzed for variability. Seed oil was extracted for phytochemical constituents, physicochemical properties, and fatty acid profiling by gas chromatography equipped with mass spectrometry (GC/MS). Results showed intra and inter-locational variations in seed characters. Most fruits had 1–2 seeds. Seeds were predominantly brown and very few were dark brown. Phytochemicals and physicochemical parameters of the seed oil varied with place of collection. Alkaloid, saponin, tannin and phytate contents ranged between 0.79–0.84, 1.20–1.26, 1.48–1.56 and 0.15–0.18 mg g−1 respectively. The density of the oil was less than that of water, acid value ranged from 10.58–13.56 mg KOH g−1 and iodine values were between 36.63 to 40.32 g I2 (100 g)–1. Saponification values lie between 160.39 and 184.14 mg KOH g−1; and free fatty acid was within 5.32–6.81 %. Peroxide, ɑ-tocopherol, total phenol and oxalate values as well as viscosity of the oil also varied; however, refractive index was similar. Ethyl oleate and octadecanoic acids were present and most abundance in all the locations, while glycidol stearate was only found in Fufu samples with three other fatty acids. Five fatty acids were present in Kosubosu, while Sare had only two. The results obtained in the present study indicate that shea oil could be used for medicinal, nutritional and industrial purposes. Since seed characters, phytochemical, physicochemical and fatty acid compositions varied with the microclimate, environmental and micro-ecological conditions should be considered when collecting seeds for oil utilization.

The quality of Shea butter is highly affected by processing factors. Hence, the aim of this work was to evaluate the effects of conditioning duration (CD), moisture content (MC), and die temperature (DT) of screw expeller on Shea butter quality. A combination of 33 full factorial design and response surface methodology was used for this investigation. Response variables were refractive index, acid value, and peroxide value. The model enabled to identify the optimum operating settings (CD = 28–30 min, MC = 3–5 g/100 g, and DT = 65–70°C) for maximize refractive index and minimum acid value. For minimum peroxide value 0 min CD, 10 g/100 g MC, and 30°C were discovered. In all‐over optimization, optimal values of 30 min CD, 9.7 g/100 g MC, and 70°C DT were found. Hence, the processing factors must be at their optimal values to achieve high butter quality and consistence.

This work focused on identifying plant biomasses as potential sources of lipases and their use as biocatalysts for ethyl biodiesel production. To that end, plant extracts prepared from dormant and germinated seeds of eight local (Burkina Faso) oil-bearing biomasses were tested as a biocatalyst for the hydrolysis and ethanol transesterification of sunflower oil. The optimum transesterification conditions with the most active extracts were then determined. The results of the hydrolysis and transesterification tests showed that the plant extracts from germinated Jatropha curcas (JG) and Moringa oleifera (MG) seeds contained lipases whose catalytic activity could be utilized without prior purification. The highest hydrolysis yield obtained was 88% using the JG extracts and 62% with the MG extracts after 24 h of reaction at 40 °C and at pH 7. For transesterification, the highest ethyl ester yield obtained was 94% with the JG extracts and 48% with the MG extracts after 144 h at 37 °C, following two successive transesterification reactions. Using the plant extracts in transesterification called for the stepwise addition of ethanol in a TAG:ethanol molar ratio of 1:0.3 at 6 h intervals to overcome the inhibiting effect of high ethanol concentrations on the catalytic activity of the plant extracts. In addition, a study on the influence of the reaction conditions showed that water had a negligible effect on transesterification yield when its content in the ethanol was lower than or equal to 5% (v/v) and that adding silica to the reaction medium led to an increase in transesterification yield.

This study determines the proximate, mineral, amino acid and anti-nutritional compositions of shea (Vitellaria paradoxa) kernel and pulp using standard analytical methods. The result showed that the contents of crude fat and protein in the kernel are higher than that of the pulp. The only minerals whose values ranged between 40.0 to 200 mg/100 g were P, Ca and Na for the kernel and pulp samples but values of other minerals (Mn, Fe, Zn, K, Cu and Mg) were below 10.00 mg/100 g on wet weight basis. Amino acid analysis of kernel and pulp showed concentrations of TAA (57.92 and 57.48 g/100 g crude protein), TEAA (27.10 and 19.04 g/100 g cp) and TNEAA (30.82 and 38.44 g/100 g cp). Arginine was the most concentrated EAA in both the kernel and pulp samples. Except for the alkaloid, the kernel sample contained higher concentrations of anti-nutritional factors than the pulp. Generally, Vitellaria paradoxa kernel and pulp contained nutritive minerals and sufficient proportions of EAAs however, supplementation of all the EAAs will be required in order to meet up with FAO/WHO dietary requirements. Also the high contents of some of their anti–nutrients may pose a nutritional problem in their consumption.Read Complete Article at ijSciences: V72018091811 AND DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.18483/ijSci.1811

Résumé Au Tchad, Vitellaria paradoxa est une espèce à usages multiples qui, malheureusement, est souvent la cible de multiples pressions parasitaires et anthropiques. L’objectif de la présente étude est de contribuer à la gestion durable de l’espèce au Tchad à travers une caractérisation des facteurs responsables de ces pressions. Pour y parvenir, un inventaire des arbres parasités par les espèces de Loranthaceae ainsi qu’une évaluation des indices de pressions anthropiques ont été réalisés dans sept des vingt-trois régions administratives du Tchad. 512 unités de comptage de 100 m x 100 m ont été implantées dans 128 villages à travers lesquelles 4 712 arbres ont été caractérisés. Le nombre de touffes de plantes parasites par arbre a été recensé, les indices d’écorçage des tiges et d’élagages anarchique des branches ont été relevés. Les résultats révèlent que les peuplements de karité sont fortement parasités avec une densité moyenne de 17 touffes de parasites par arbre. La densité moyenne des indices de pression anthropique par hectare est de 14 pour l’écorçage, 6 pour les tiges percées, 7 pour les tiges brulées et de 4 pour l’élagage. Le taux moyen d’infestation parasitaire varie en moyenne de 54% dans les systèmes cultivés à 81% dans les milieux naturels (savanes et jachères). L’analyse de Classification Ascendante Hiérarchique a permis de regrouper les bassins de production en trois types de parcs à karité suivant un gradient de dégradation. Il ressort de ces résultats que les principaux facteurs qui dégradent les parcs à karité au Tchad sont l’infestation des Loranthaceae et l’écorçage des tiges. Pour la gestion durable des ressources du karité au Tchad, cette étude recommande le développement et la promotion des méthodes de lutte contre les infestations de Loranthacées et une sensibilisation des populations pour la domestication et l’adoption des méthodes rationnelles d’écorçage et d’élagage. Abstract In Chad, Vitellaria paradoxa is a multipurpose tree species that, unfortunately, is often the target of parasitic and anthropogenic pressures. The objective of this study was to contribute to the sustainable management of V. paradoxa in Chad through the characterization of factors responsible of these pressures. To achieve this, an inventory of Shea trees infested by Loranthaceae parasites and an assessment of anthropogenic pressure indices were conducted in seven out of the twenty-three administrative regions in Chad. 512 plots units of 100 m x 100 m were implanted in 128 villages through which 4 712 trees were characterised. The number of clumps of parasitic plants was recorded, the indices of stem peelings and uncontrolled branch pruning was noted. The results reveal that Shea stands are heavily parasitized with an average density of 17 tufts per tree. The average density of human pressure indices per hectare is 14 for debarking, 4 for pruning, 6 for pierced stems and 7 for burnt stems. The rate of parasite infestation varies from 54% in farming systems (Crop farms, homegardens and Fruit orchards) to 81% in natural land use (savanna and fallow lands), whereas the level of anthropogenic pressure, especially bark removal is higher in farmlands. The Hierarchical Ascendant Classification analysis grouped the Shea production areas into three types of parks according to a degradation gradient. From the results, it appears that the main factors degrading shea parks in Chad are infestation of tree branches with Loranthaceae and debarking for medicinal use. Therefore, for the sustainable management of shea tree resources in Chad, this study support the development and promotion of a control measure against infestation of Loranthaceae parasites as well as sensitization of the populations for Shea tree domestication and adoption of rational methods of bark harvesting and branch pruning. &nbsp

The morphological responses of seedlings of eight African provenances of Vitellaria paradoxa (Shea tree or Karite) to imposed draught stress were compared under nursery experimental conditions. The potted seedlings were subjected to three different watering regimes (87 days after sowing): no water stress (100% of the field capacity, C), moderate water stress (75% of C) and severe water stress (50% of C). Before the application of the stress, we observed genotypical differences in the morphological variables at the scale of leaves and of above-ground parts. The six-month water stress affected aerial growth: all provenances responded to drought by down-regulating growth (in height and in diameter), leaf number and area. Katawki provenance of Uganda performed relatively poorly, possibly of it being a nilotica subspecies, contrary to the others (paradoxa subspecies). There was a lack of correlation between climate of seeds origin, seed characteristics, seeds germination and survival rate of seedlings. The study confirmed the importance of leaf area in the vigor of the initial growth in this species. Thus, Tamale and Karaba provenances performed better than other West African provenances due to their larger leaf area, which was found to be a determining factor of relative growth in height at the seedling stage.

Combining antibiotics with resistance reversing agents is a key strategy to overcome bacterial resistance. Upon screening antimicrobial activities of plants used in traditional medicine, we found that a leaf dichloromethane extract from the shea butter tree (Vitellaria paradoxa) had antimicrobial activity against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) with further evidence of synergy when combined with β-lactams. Using HPLC-MS, we identified ursolic (UA) and oleanolic acids (OA) in leaves and twigs of this species, and quantified them by HPLC-UV as the major constituents in leaf extracts (21% and 6% respectively). Both pure triterpenic acids showed antimicrobial activity against reference and clinical strains of MRSA, with MICs ranging from 8–16 mg/L for UA to 32–128 mg/L for OA. They were highly synergistic with β-lactams (ampicillin and oxacillin) at subMIC concentrations. Reversion of MRSA phenotype was attributed to their capacity to delocalize PBP2 from the septal division site, as observed by fluorescence microscopy, and to disturb thereby peptidoglycan synthesis. Moreover, both compounds also inhibited β-lactamases activity of living bacteria (as assessed by inhibition of nitrocefin hydrolysis), but not in bacterial lysates, suggesting an indirect mechanism for this inhibition. In a murine model of subcutaneous MRSA infection, local administration of UA was synergistic with nafcillin to reduce lesion size and inflammatory cytokine (IL-1β) production. Thus, these data highlight the potential interest of triterpenic acids as resistance reversing agents in combination with β-lactams against MRSA.

Summary. — Market globalization has had only a weak impact on the regional shea nut supply chain in western Burkina Faso despite the boom in the shea trade and the arrival of leading foreign firms. We show that despite the fact that wholesalers have kept the shea chain locked in an oligarchic organization for the last 50 years, they still play an important role in the smooth functioning of the chain and in profit sharing down the chain to the rural poor. We suggest that development actors should consider shea traders and their role in the coordination of the chain more carefully. 2014 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-SA license (http://creativecommons.org/ licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/).

Background: Vitellaria paradoxa is a traditional medicinal plant of Cameroon. Several studies on this plant have focused on the cosmetic profile of its fruits. The present study focuses on the anti-inflammatory potency of stem barks extract of this plant. Objective: The objective was to evaluate the effect of methanolic extract of V. paradoxa (VPME) stem barks on inflammatory response in rats. Materials and Methods: Anti-inflammatory effects of VPME were evaluated in acute and chronic (28 days) inflammation induced in Wistar albino rats. The effects on hyperalgesia and locomotors activity were also quantified. The relative weight of lymphoid organs was obtained as well as some hematological parameters. Results: In the carrageenan-induced inflammation, VPME (75 mg/kg) exhibited a significant (66.67%) inhibition after 1 h. On the complete Freund's adjuvant-induced rheumatoid arthritis, VPME showed a significant protective effect with 8.12% inflammation against 25.00% for the control group after 2 days of the treatment. The extract (75 and 150 mg/kg) significantly reduced the score of arthritis with a maximum obtained on day 19 th of the experimentation. There was a significant increase in the reaction time of rats on the hot plate as well as the exploratory activities of the animals in the open field. This extract significantly prevented weight, hemoglobin and red blood cells losses, and spleen hypertrophy. A protective action against skin destruction and cartilage erosion was evident. Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis of the extract revealed the presence of catechins. Conclusions: These findings suggested that V. paradoxa may contribute to the reduction of the inflammatory response.

Objective To evaluate the effect of bacterial infection on cell oxidation and to study the in vitro and in vivo antioxidant activity of aqueous extract of Ludwigia abyssinica and Vitellaria paradoxa . Methods The Salmonella typhimurium -infected rats (1.5×10 8 CFU) concurrently received either different doses of plant extract (55, 110, 220 and 440 mg/kg) or ascorbic acid (vitamin C 100 mg/kg) daily for 18 d. The parameters like, lipid profile, reduced glutathione content, superoxide dismutase, catalase activities and bilirubin were assessed. Results Infection has resulted in an increase of heart reduced glutathione, heart and kidneys malondihaldehyde and liver superoxide dismutase activity followed by decreases of that of heart. The administration of the extract at 55, 110, 220 and 440 mg/kg body has resulted in the correction of some of these injuries. Conclusions The present study demonstrates that aqueous extract of Ludwigia abyssinica and Vitellaria paradoxa can fight against bacterial infection and cell oxidation induced by infection with Salmonella typhimurium .

Adsorption/photodegradation dual property of AC-TiO2 composites materials towards biorefractory pollutants is a promising issue for solar water treatment. In this work, AC-TiO2 hybrid materials have been synthesized through 03 novel routes based on the conversion of typical biomasses, abundantly found in the subsaharian African sunny areas. Biomasses pyrolysis derived activated carbon (AC) developed a porous structure which is modified differently according to the method used to fix TiO2 nanoparticules (TiO2-NPs). AC impregnated with a sol containing TiO2-NPs suspension provides the derived composite material (CAT.SX) with TiO2-NPs regularly deposited at the “external surface”, leading to a good coupling of adsorption/photodegradation activities towards phenol elimination in 100 mg.L-1 polluted water, carried out on lab scale experiments. Pore/surface area network is less developed on composites obtained after in situ fixation of TiO2-NPs on TiO2 gel impregnated AC (CAT.GX), or obtained after direct pyrolysis of TiO2-NPs impregnated biomass (CAT.SBX) – which infers lesser decontamination performances for these two latter families of catalysts. Pollutant elimination kinetics curves depicted after recycling of CAT.SX over several running water treatment was simulated with a suitable mathematical model which takes into consideration the dual functionalities of the elaborated material. The established model is a promising attempt for future dimensioning of real solar water treatment plants, operating in sunny areas with the new composite catalysts., La double fonction absorption-photodégradation des composites CA-TiO2 vis-à-vis des polluants biorécalcitrants est une alternative prometteuse pour le traitement de l’eau par voie solaire. Dans ce travail, des composites CA-TiO2 sont élaborés suivants trois méthodes simples basées sur l’utilisation des biomasses trouvées dans la sous région ensoleillée de l’Afrique subsaharienne. Les charbons actifs (CA) obtenus après pyrolyse des biomasses développent une structure poreuse qui se modifie ensuite en fonction de la voie de fixation des nanoparticules TiO2 (NPs-TiO2) pour l’obtention des composites. Parmi les trois vois de fixation du TiO2, l’imprégnation du CA avec le sol de NPs-TiO2 préformées conduit à des matériaux (CAT.SX) avec du TiO2 déposé de façon homogène à la « surface externe » du CA. Cette microtexture permet un meilleur couplage des propriétés adsorption-photodégradation, favorables aux performances de dépollution évaluées à l’échelle de laboratoire sur des solutions de phénol à 100 mg.L-1. Le réseau pores/surface spécifique est moins développé sur les composites obtenus par fixation in situ des NPs-TiO2 sur du CA imprégné de gel de TiO2 (CAT.GX), ou par pyrolyse directe de biomasse pré-imprégnée de NPs-TiO2 (CAT.SBX) ; ce qui explique les performances de dépollution moins élevées enregistrées pour ces deux dernières familles de catalyseurs. Les cinétiques d’élimination du polluant obtenues après plusieurs cycles successifs d’utilisation des catalyseurs CAT.SX ont été correctement simulées avec un modèle dont le formalisme tient compte de la double fonctionnalité des catalyseurs. Ce modèle permet d’envisager le dimensionnement d’installations solaires en condition réelle d’utilisation de ces nouveaux catalyseurs en zones fortement ensoleillée

Average population growth in the African Sudanian belt is 3 % per year. This leads to a significant increase in cultivated areas at the expense of fallows and forests. For centuries, rural populations have been practicing agroforestry dominated by Vitellaria paradoxa parklands. We wanted to know whether agroforestry can improve local rainfall recycling as well as forest. We compared transpiration and its seasonal variations between Vitellaria paradoxa, the dominant species in fallows, and Isoberlinia doka, the dominant species in dry forests in the Sudanian belt. The fallow and dry forest we studied are located in northwestern Benin, where average annual rainfall is 1200 mm. Sap flow density (SFD) was measured by transient thermal dissipation, from which tree transpiration was deduced. Transpiration of five trees per species was estimated by taking into account the radial profile of SFD. The effect of the species and of the season on transpiration was tested with a generalized linear mixed model. Over the three-year study period, daily transpiration of the agroforestry trees, V. paradoxa (diameters 8-38 cm) ranged between 4.4 and 26.8 L day(-1) while that of the forest trees, I. doka, (diameters 20-38 cm) ranged from 9.8 to 92.6 L day(-1). Daily transpiration of V. paradoxa was significantly lower (15 %) in the dry season than in the rainy season, whereas daily transpiration by I. doka was significantly higher (13 %) in the dry season than in the rainy season. Our results indicate that the woody cover of agroforestry systems is less efficient in recycling local rainfall than forest cover, not only due to lower tree density but also to species composition.

This work focused on the synthesis of charcoal as carbonaceous catalyst support for the ethanol transesterification of vegetable oil to produce biodiesel. Shea (Vitellaria paradoxa) nut shells (SNS) were used as raw material to prepare an activated carbon based catalyst by chemical activation with potassium hydroxide (KOH). A central composite design of the response surface methodology (RSM) was used to investigate the interactive effect of the SNS-K catalyst synthesis parameters (pyrolysis temperature, residence time and KOH impregnation ratio) and its catalytic activity in sunflower ethanol transesterification. Experimental yields reached > 90% ester content in the biodiesel, with a catalyst prepared under mild pyrolysis conditions. Results showed that the temperature of pyrolysis and the KOH ratio used to impregnate SNS are the most important factors influencing the SNS-K catalytic activity. Catalyst prepared between 400 °C and 650 °C, with 120 min residence time and a biomass: KOH ratio of between 14% and 17.5% produced the highest ethyl ester content (96%) with an optimal catalyst prepared at 650 °C, with 120 min residence time and 14% KOH loading. SNS-K catalyst characterization by X-ray diffraction (XRD) showed potassium carbonate to be the main active potassium species responsible for catalytic activity. Recyclability tests showed that the catalyst can be reused after a thermal post treatment without catalytic activity loss. Thus, this new simple catalytic process allows biodiesel production under mild conditions, using local reactant (i.e. bioethanol, vegetable oils and char from local agricultural residues). This can be a realistic alternative process for a shift towards sustainable energy in sub-Saharan Africa. (Resume d'auteur)

Shea tree sawdust delignification kinetic data during alkaline peroxide pretreatment were investigated at temperatures of 120 °C, 135 °C, and 150 °C. The activation energy during delignification was 76.4 kJ/mol and the Arrhenius constant was calculated as 8.4 x 106 per min. The reducing sugar yield for the treated to the untreated biomass was about 22-fold. Enzymatic hydrolysis conditions studied were; time (72 h and 96 h), substrate concentration (20, 30, 40, and 50 g/L), and enzyme loadings (10, 25, 40, 50 FPU/g dry biomass), which showed the optimum conditions of 96 h, 40 g/L, and 25 FPU/g dry biomass at 45 °C hydrolysis temperature. At the optimized enzymatic hydrolysis conditions, the reducing sugar yield was 416.32 mg equivalent glucose/g treated dry biomass. After 96 h fermentation of treated biomass, the ethanol obtained at 2% effective cellulose loading was 12.73 g/L. Alkaline peroxide oxidation pretreatment and subsequent enzymatic hydrolysis improved the ethanol yield of the biomass.

Au Sénégal et en Côte d'Ivoire, les arbres des parcs arborés sont associés à des productions céréalière ou fourragère. L'influence positive sur les rendements agricoles résulte de l'amélioration du micro- climat, des retombés de matières organiques et minérales et d'une meilleure activité biologique des sols lorsque Faiherbia et Karité sont associés aux productions agricoles.

We utilize isotherm models in contributing to scholarly knowledge in simple terms, to measure the forces or energy defining certain adsorption phenomenon. Gas Chromatography coupled with Mass Spectrophotometer detector (GCMS) was utilized to measure equilibrium phase atrazine after adsorption onto Shea nut Shells (SS) acid derived activated carbon. Data were fitted into the D-R and Temkin isotherm relationships for energy data estimation of Sorption energy value (BD), mean free energy (ED) and heat of sorption (B). They were estimated as 0.7600mol2KJ-2, 0.8111 kjmol-1 and 0.790Jmol-1 respectively. The parameter predicting the type of adsorption was evaluated BD , B < 20kJ/mol and ED2 = 0.979 proves a better choice in explaining sorption energies. Generally, shea nut shells can be used as alternative precursors for activated carbon production via the two steps and acid treatment method..

Phosphoric acid (H3PO4) and Zinc chloride (ZnCl2) catalyzed shea nut shells, subjected to a one way activation scheme was employed to study the adsorption kinetics and mode of diffusion of industrial dye uptake. Thermodynamics data obtained in this study indicate that the sorption of dye spontaneously increases with time and decreases after equilibration was reached. The adsorption follows the pseudo second order kinetic model which gave the least % SSE (0.449-1.348), best linearity (R2=0.998-0.999) and closer agreement between the experimental and calculated qe values (qe exp., 96.985/qe cal., 100.00).Mode of transport deviate from the intraparticle diffusion model. According to this study, percent dye removal coupled with the close proximity of generated data to those reviewed in literatures, is an indication that shea nut shells could compare, to a good extent with commercial activated carbon for organic dye removal from dyestuff wastewater.

The Shea tree (Vitellaria paradoxa) is a major tree species in African agroforestry systems. Butter extracted from its nuts offers an opportunity for sustainable development in Sudanian countries and an attractive potential for the food and cosmetics industries. The purpose of this study was to develop near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) calibrations to characterize Shea nut fat profiles. Powders prepared from nuts collected from 624 trees in five African countries (Senegal, Mali, Burkina Faso, Ghana and Uganda) were analyzed for moisture content, fat content using solvent extraction, and fatty acid profiles using gas chromatography. Results confirmed the differences between East and West African Shea nut fat composition: eastern nuts had significantly higher fat and oleic acid contents. Near infrared reflectance spectra were recorded for each sample. Ten percent of the samples were randomly selected for validation and the remaining samples used for calibration. For each constituent, calibration equations were developed using modified partial least squares (MPLS) regression. The equation performances were evaluated using the ratio performance to deviation (RPD(p)) and R(p)(2) parameters, obtained by comparison of the validation set NIR predictions and corresponding laboratory values. Moisture (RPD(p) = 4.45; R(p)(2) = 0.95) and fat (RPD(p) = 5.6; R(p)(2) = 0.97) calibrations enabled accurate determination of these traits. NIR models for stearic (RPD(p) = 6.26; R(p)(2) = 0.98) and oleic (RPD(p) = 7.91; R(p)(2) = 0.99) acids were highly efficient and enabled sharp characterization of these two major Shea butter fatty acids. This study demonstrated the ability of near-infrared spectroscopy for high-throughput phenotyping of Shea nuts.

For the successful cultivation of most undomesticated fruit trees such as shea butter tree (Vitellaria paradoxa C.F.Gaertn.), there is a need to identify their nutrient requirements and optimal growth conditions. Responses of shea seedlings to combined N and P fertilization, and to inoculation with arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi was investigated. Six months old shea seedlings were transplanted into pots and grown for six months using a sterile nutrient-deficient soil. The seedlings were inoculated with the AM fungus Glomus intraradices Schenk & Smith. The fertilization treatments consisted of a factorial combination of three levels of N supplied as NH4NO3-N and P supplied as Ca(H2PO4)2. Fertilization stimulated plant height, collar diameter and dry weights (DWs) compared with non-fertilized treatments. These improvements were associated with an increase in total shoot N and C uptake (33% increase) whereas P and K contents were not affected. There was significant N x P interaction on DWs and total shoot N and C contents, suggesting that seedling N responses were influenced by P rates. Consistent N responses in DWs, and total shoot N and C uptake were significant at the lowest P rate. P increases promoted growth and total shoot nutrient contents in low N-treated seedlings, while reducing growth in higher N rates. The combined application of medium and high rates of N and P fertilizers showed relatively low impact on seedling growth presumably because of suboptimal N:P ratios. Mycorrhizal root colonization was generally low (≤ 12%) and was not affected by any of the treatments. There was also no response to inoculation with AM fungi probably because the established mycorrhizal association was ineffective. The potential use of both mineral fertilizers and AM fungi to promote growth performance of shea seedlings are discussed.

Comparison of first stages of somatic embryogenesis in Baillonella toxisperma and Vitellaria paradoxa. In order to initiate the in vitro propagation of Baillonella toxisperma and Vitellaria paradoxa, a comparative study of somatic embryogenesis was studied on these two Sapotaceae using leaf fragment from plants under production. A culture medium of Murashige and Skoog half strength (MS/2) supplemented with 0.6% agar and 4.5% sucrose was used as the basic medium. 0.5 mg.l-1 of 6-benzylaminopurine (BAP) and 0.5 to 5 mg.l-1 of 2.4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2.4-D) were added to the basic medium to study the process of callogenesis and the formation of the somatic embryo on the callus. The BAP/2.4-D combination significantly affected callogenesis in both species. During 28 days of culture, the most reactive combinations are 0.5/0.5 in B. toxisperma which allowed 75.2% of the explants to form callus, and 0.5/3 in V. paradoxa which permitted to obtain up to 87.3% callogenesis. At 3 mg.l-1, 2.4-D permitted the differentiation of somatic embryos in 92.7% of callus in B. toxisperma with an average of 38 embryos per callus. On the contrary in V. paradoxa, the most reaction is observed with the combination of 0.5/2 BAP/2.4-D which permitted to obtain 62.1% of embryonic callus in 97 days of culture with an average of 27 embryos per callus. The histological study of embryonic callus showed that the development of the differentiated somatic embryos occurs through the same stages in both species; notably the nodular stage, the division of nodular cells stage and the bipolar embryos stage, thus the respective percentages obtained are 77.2% and 66.8% in B. toxisperma and V. paradoxa. Though this work opens probably new way of propagation of these two species, the transformation of the bipolar embryos into viable plants remains important phase to study.

The impact of human practices on the phenology of flowering was assessed for an important agroforestry tree species of the Sudano-Sahelian zone: Vitellaria paradoxa. Flowering was monitored at two sites in southern Mali over 2 years. At each site, the impact of agricultural practices on flowering phenology was assessed by comparing field, fallow and forest. The site effect and agricultural practices were significant for all the monitored variables. The proportion of individuals that flowered was 89% at Koumantou and 40% at MPeresso. About 98, 95 and 75% of individuals at Koumantou and 88, 12 and 20% at MPeresso flowered in the field, fallow and forest, respectively. The mean length of flowering ranged from 69 to 81 days at Koumantou and from 45 to 108 days at MPeresso. The mean number of days for the active phase ranged from 36 to 49 days at Koumantou and from 27 to 64 days at MPeresso. Koumantou's favourable climatic conditions resulted in better flowering ability and a higher probability of abundant flowering. Field appeared to provide better conditions than fallow and forest regarding flowering ability and probability of abundant flowering. How-ever, tree diameter did not affect flowering phenology. Agricultural practices appear to have a noticeable impact on the phenology of flowering of V. paradoxa. Trees flowered abundantly in the parkland and therefore increased gene flow via pollen and/or seeds and the dynamics of genetic diversity.

The shea tree is an endogenous and multipurpose tree from the Savanah zone of Africa, mostly used for its fruits and the fat extracted from its kernels, commonly known as shea butter. The butter is used for cooking and medicinal purposes by local populations, and in cosmetic products as well as a cocoa butter substitute in chocolate in others areas of Africa and at the international level. The butter is generally extracted by traditional methods, which vary throughout the production zones but involve some common processing operations viz. boiling of the fresh nuts, sun drying, shelling, crushing, roasting, milling, churning, and heating. This thesis investigated the influence of traditional processing of shea on quality attributes of shea kernels and butter. The results showed that 2 mains techniques (differing in the heat treatment applied to the fresh nuts) are used to process shea fruits after their collection: the boiling followed by sun drying technique and the smoking technique. Boiled and sundried kernels contained a higher fat content (48 % dw) and yielded more butter (30 % of kernel mass) than smoked kernels that had a fat content of 39 % dw. The butter extracted from the boiled kernels had a better quality than the butter from smoked kernels with respect to the unsaponifiable fraction (7 %), tocopherol compounds (125 mg/g), peroxide value (8 meq O2/kg), and FFA (2 %). Some processing operations, namely the storage of fresh nuts as related to their boiling time and the roasting of kernels, were optimized using the response surface method to design the experiments. The conditions to obtain an optimal quality of kernels are to store the nuts for 3 days and boil them for 28 ± 3 min. Subsequently, optimal roasting conditions for kernels were found to be 15 min at 171 ºC, which resulted in kernels with a fat content of 49 % dw, a butter yield of 32 %, and butter with a FFA of 1.2 %. The results also revealed that shea butter extracted from roasted kernels contained more volatile compounds (58) than that from unroasted kernels (27). Additionally, storage temperature and storage duration significantly affected some quality characteristics of shea butter, whereas the influence of local packaging materials was less pronounced Shea processors are advised to process shea fruits by integrating the optimal conditions of storage of fresh nuts, boiling and roasting found in this research, then pack the butter in clean and opaque plastic and store it in a relatively cool area to maintain the quality of the product during prolonged storage periods. Areas for future research were identified for further improvements of local shea processing.

The shea tree is an endogenous and multipurpose tree from the Savanah zone of Africa, mostly used for its fruits and the fat extracted from its kernels, commonly known as shea butter. The butter is used for cooking and medicinal purposes by local populations, and in cosmetic products as well as a cocoa butter substitute in chocolate in others areas of Africa and at the international level. The butter is generally extracted by traditional methods, which vary throughout the production zones but involve some common processing operations viz. boiling of the fresh nuts, sun drying, shelling, crushing, roasting, milling, churning, and heating. This thesis investigated the influence of traditional processing of shea on quality attributes of shea kernels and butter. The results showed that 2 mains techniques (differing in the heat treatment applied to the fresh nuts) are used to process shea fruits after their collection: the boiling followed by sun drying technique and the smoking technique. Boiled and sundried kernels contained a higher fat content (48 % dw) and yielded more butter (30 % of kernel mass) than smoked kernels that had a fat content of 39 % dw. The butter extracted from the boiled kernels had a better quality than the butter from smoked kernels with respect to the unsaponifiable fraction (7 %), tocopherol compounds (125 mg/g), peroxide value (8 meq O2/kg), and FFA (2 %). Some processing operations, namely the storage of fresh nuts as related to their boiling time and the roasting of kernels, were optimized using the response surface method to design the experiments. The conditions to obtain an optimal quality of kernels are to store the nuts for 3 days and boil them for 28 ± 3 min. Subsequently, optimal roasting conditions for kernels were found to be 15 min at 171 ºC, which resulted in kernels with a fat content of 49 % dw, a butter yield of 32 %, and butter with a FFA of 1.2 %. The results also revealed that shea butter extracted from roasted kernels contained more volatile compounds (58) than that from unroasted kernels (27). Additionally, storage temperature and storage duration significantly affected some quality characteristics of shea butter, whereas the influence of local packaging materials was less pronounced Shea processors are advised to process shea fruits by integrating the optimal conditions of storage of fresh nuts, boiling and roasting found in this research, then pack the butter in clean and opaque plastic and store it in a relatively cool area to maintain the quality of the product during prolonged storage periods. Areas for future research were identified for further improvements of local shea processing.

In the sub-humid part of Burkina Faso, population growth, migrations and new marketing opportunities have induced rapid land-use changes and social reorganization, leading to new approaches to natural resource management. The objective of this study was to evaluate tree biodiversity parameters in agroforestry parklands (scattered trees in crop land) as population increases and fallows become shorter. Out of about 100 tree species existing in the area, and 50 commonly found in traditional parklands, only 3 indigenous and 2 non-native species hold a significant importance for farmers, all for their fruits. No indigenous tree species are planted, but a few are protected when clearing the land. Planted cashew nut orchards develop rapidly and are seen as a land tenure guarantee and an important source of income. Given these facts, the perspectives for tree biodiversity management in farmers' land may appear bleak. Yet, the importance given by farmers to specific tree products demonstrates that trees do play a pa t in land development and farmers' strategies. Existing practices of farmers show potential for improved land-use and spatial patterning of the land, as revealed by emerging parklands and orchards. Our data do not confirm common statements that migrant farmers do not manage the land as sustainably as native farmers do. Rather than trying to conserve tree biodiversity as it is, researchers and developers should identify with farmers the complementarities between trees and farms and promote tree biodiversity through existing practices.

In this study we investigated the within- and between-population genetic variation using microsatellite markers and quantitative traits of the shea tree, Vitellaria paradoxa, an important agroforestry tree species of the Sudano-Sahelian region in Africa. Eleven populations were sampled across Mali and in northern Côte d'Ivoire. Leaf size and form and growth traits were measured in a progeny test at the nursery stage. Eight microsatellites were used to assess neutral genetic variation. Low levels of heterozygosity were recorded (1.6-3.0 alleles/locus; H(E) = 0.25-0.42) and the fixation index (F(IS) = -0.227-0.186) was not significantly different from zero suggesting that Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium is encountered in all populations sampled. Quantitative traits exhibited a strong genetic variation between populations and between families within populations. The degree of population differentiation of the quantitative traits (Q(ST) = 0.055-0.283, Q(STmean) = 0.189) strongly exceeds that in eight microsatellite loci (F(ST) = -0.011-0.142, F(STmean) = 0.047). Global and pairwise F(ST) values were very low and not significantly different from zero suggesting agroforestry practices are amplifying gene flow (Nm = 5.07). The population means for quantitative traits and the rainfall variable were not correlated, showing variation was not linked with this climatic cline. It is suggested that this marked differentiation for quantitative traits, independent of environmental clines and despite a high gene flow, is a result of local adaptation and human selection of shea trees. This process has induced high linkage disequilibrium between underlying loci of polygenic characters.

Many authors have expressed concerns about the evolution of soil fertility under cotton and cereal cultivation in southern Mali. Nevertheless, farmers have now cropped some of their fields for more than 30 years and still obtain fair yields. Our hypothesis is that the trees (mainly Vitellaria paradoxa) that farmers keep in their cropped fields help to maintain soil fertility. Consequently, we studied the relationships between the trees associated with crops and soil fertility on a sloped catena. On the lower section, 24 trees ha-1 cover 8% of the surface. They produce annually ~ 56.7kg of leaves per tree. Corresponding mineral recyclings, under the crown, are, per m2 and per year: 19 g N; 1 g P; 19 g K; 29 g Ca; 10 g Mg. The soil contains significantly more C and N under the crown of the trees than outside this area. V. paradoxa trees are less numerous on the middle section (3 ha-1) and on the top section (1.5 ha-1) of the catena than on the lower section, and consequently, their effect on the soil is decreasing from the lowlands to the uplands. On the lower section of the catena, the trees have an impact on the fertility of the whole field. Therefore, farmers intensify the cultivation in this section, which is the more favorable section of the catena.

Vitellaria paradoxa C.F.Gaertn. is one of the most economically and socially important tree species in the Sudano-Sahelian region. Little is known of the pattern of variation within its natural range. Eight populations covering most of the natural range from Senegal to Uganda were sampled and leaves of 118 individual trees were collected. An analysis of molecular diversity was carried out using random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers. Fifteen random primers generated 67 polymorphic and 15 monomorphic RAPD loci ranging from size 1670 bp to 280 bp. Shannon's diversity index varied from Central Africa/Ndele (0.374) to Uganda/Amoya (0.350) but the differences between populations were smaller than the population standard errors. Correspondence analysis of unrooted neighbour-joining trees suggested that genetic distances between populations were correlated with geographic distances. This trend was confirmed by a Mantel test giving a coefficient of correlation between genetic and geographic distances of R = 0.88 (P = 0.0001). Result of AMOVA (analyses of molecular variance) showed that 14.8% (P = 0.002) of the RAPD variation was distributed among populations. Nested analysis of variance indicated that variance between the western and eastern groups of population represented 8.7% (P = 0.001) of the total variation and the variation amongst populations within group was 9.5% (P = 0.001). Eighty two percent of the variation was explained by variation amongst individuals within populations. The origin of genetic structure and level of diversity may be explained by the glacial refugia, the biological traits of Vitellaria paradoxa and by the impact of semi-domestication. Based on these results, sampling options of the natural populations are suggested for in or ex situ conservation. For the development of Vitellaria paradoxa breeding population, the sampling should consist of many individual trees selected within a few populations to capture a large proportion of variation.

Introduction. Pays d'Afrique de l'Ouest, la Guinee a un climat tropical et un relief accidente, avec un reseau hydrographique important. Elle presente quatre regions naturelles dans lesquelles se developpent spontanement plusieurs especes fruitieres dont les fruits sont actuellement consommes et vendus dans les marches nationaux. Afin de mieux exploiter ces produits, des enquetes ont cherche a constituer une base de donnees fiables identifiant les especes fruitieres impliquees, leurs zones et leurs periodes de production, le circuit de commercialisation des produits, leurs techniques de conservation, de transformation et de consommation. Materiel et methodes. Un suivi des prix des fruits de cueillette commercialises en Guinee et une analyse approfondie de leur production et de leur utilisation ont ete realises de mars 1998 a fevrier 2000 sur deux memes marches guineens. Pour cela, les informations requises (prix, periode, conditionnement, circuit de commercialisation) ont ete collectees par enquetes effectuees tous les quinze jours et consignees sur une fiche specifique. Resultats. L'etude a mis en evidence d'eventuels problemes d'approvisionnement des marches, lies a leur site. Parmi les especes identifiees, douze se sont revelees plus importantes et ont fait l'objet d'analyses. Leurs zones de production ont ete definies. La majorite des fruits commercialises sur les marches enquetes murissent entre mars et juin ; ils representent une source de revenus pour une bonne part de la population. Les techniques de conservation, de commercialisation, de transformation et de consommation ont ete repertoriees. Conclusion. L'enquete effectuee conduit a encourager la protection des fruitiers de cueillette et a conseiller leur introduction progressive dans les vergers familiaux. Les programmes de recherches nationaux cherchent a intervenir egalement dans la transformation et la conservation des produits issus de cueillettes, qui posent de grosses difficultes aux producteurs.