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Electricity production has a significant impact on the Water-Energy-Food nexus sectors as it requires substantial amounts of water and land, whilst also being a primary polluter of these resources. In addition, electricity production is a key contributor to global carbon emissions. With electricity production predicted to increase by over 50% by 2050, the impact of electricity production on water and land resources, as well as on carbon emissions, will need to be significantly reduced. This is particularly important in countries facing water, energy, and food scarcity and insecurity, such as South Africa. This paper therefore investigates the impact of electricity production on the Water-Energy-Food nexus sectors and on carbon emissions in South Africa. To do this, we conduct a lifecycle assessment of the water and land required for electricity production, as well as its carbon emissions in South Africa, by electricity source, and under key scenarios. The results from the Integrated Resource Plan 2030 scenario show that despite a 34% increase in electricity production targeted from 2018 to 2030 in South Africa, the water and land requirements, and the carbon emissions of electricity production would decrease by 29%, 9%, and 5.5%, respectively. Compared to the Business-as-Usual 2030 scenario, it was shown that the water and land requirements and carbon emissions of electricity production would be 55.5%, 42.6%, and 41.5% lower in the Integrated Resource Plan 2030 scenario, respectively. Overall, the results show that to reduce the impact of electricity production on the Water-Energy-Food nexus sectors and on carbon emissions, switching away from fossil fuels (particularly coal), and promoting the use of non-hydro and non-biomass renewables is required.

IntroductionWater deficit is one of the factors limiting the growth of plants in the world and is the most common environmental stress. Several studies show decreasing in growth, yield and plant death as a result of unfavorable water or water stress conditions. Management of nutrients consumption along with water consumption management influences the quantitative and qualitative yield of crops and medicinal plants. Although, chemical fertilizers provide plant nutrients for the plants faster and more effective, but to increase the quality of products, especially the medicinal and aromatic plants, the use of organic fertilizers is better than chemical fertilizers. Organic fertilizers cause decreasing in bulk density and increasing water retention in the soil. Manure is one of the organic fertilizer sources which its application is conventional in the sustainable management system of soil. Organic fertilizers, especially manures compare with chemical fertilizers having large amounts of organic materials and counted as a rich source of nutrients especially nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium which provide these elements over the time for the plants.Materials and MethodsA split plot experiment was carried out in a randomized complete block design with three replications at the research farm of Shahrekord University. Main factor was three levels of irrigation regimes including: full irrigation (control), 75% and 50% of full irrigation while six levels of manure application including: 1) no amended fertilizer (control), 2) 25% urea + 75% manure 3) 50% urea + 50% manure 4) 75% urea + 25% manure 5) 100% urea and 6) 100% manure, were used as subplot. Water need of the other treatments was considered based on the water demand of control. Using the counter, the volume of required water was added to each plot. The period between two irrigations was determined using meteorological data and determining daily water requirement and the moisture regimes (water stress) was applied after the establishment of seedlings at eight leaf stage. Then at full flowering stage, the percentage of leaf water content (LWC), the amount of water to the dry weight (IWC), leaf water-retaining (RWP), water scarcity index of saturation (saturation deficit) (WSD), leaf relative water content (RWC), membrane stability (CMS), moisture retention capacity (MRC), relative water loss (RWL) and dry matter yield (DMY) were studied.Results and DiscussionThe results showed that the effect of irrigation regime on IWC, WSD, RWC, CMS and RWL was significant. The maximum IWC, RWC, CMS and RWL and the minimum WSD was observed in full water demand and 50% full irrigation treatments, respectively. Different fertilizer levels also showed significant effect on LWC, RWP, WSD, RWC, CMS, MRC, RWL and DMY. The interaction effect between irrigation regime and fertilizer was also significant on IWC, LWC, RWP, MRC, RWL and DMY. In general, in order to maintain the moisture balance of plant, application of 50% urea + 50% manure with supply of full water demand was recommended.Conclusion Based on the results obtained at this experiment, it can be said that the complete water requirement caused increases in IWC, RWC, CMS, RWL and DMY, while the WSD was decreased. Moreover, application of 50% urea + 50% manure could increase LWC, RWP, MRC, RWL, IWC and DMY, reflecting the positive effect of fertilizers combined application. In total, according to the results of this research, in order to maintain the moisture balance of the plant, the combined application of manure and chemical fertilizers for 50% urea + 50% manure and supply of full water demand is recommended.

[ES] El objetivo de este trabajo final de grado es la puesta en marcha de una instalación de riego localizado destinada al cultivo de cítricos en el término municipal de Montroy (Valencia). Se dispone de una extensión de aproximadamente 7 hectáreas. En el presente proyecto, como punto de partida, se estimarán las necesidades hídricas de acuerdo a las condiciones climáticas de la zona, las características de la finca y las del cultivo en cuestión. Consecuentemente se dimensionarán y diseñarán la red de transporte y subunidades pertinentes, así como el cabezal de riego y los elementos necesarios para un buen funcionamiento. La instalación se abastecerá desde un hidrante perteneciente a la comunidad de regantes del municipio. Se concluirá con la elección de la instalación que permita una mayor eficiencia de riego y menores costes tanto energéticos como económicos., [EN] The aim of this project is the implementation of a localized irrigation system for the cultivation of citrus fruits in the municipality of Montroy (Valencia). It covers an area of approximately 7 hectares. In this project, as a starting point, the water requirements will be estimated according to the climatic conditions of the area, the characteristics of the farm and those of the crop in question. Consequently, the transport network and relevant sub-units will be dimensioned and designed, as well as the irrigation head and the elements necessary for proper operation. The installation will be supplied from a hydrant belonging to the irrigation community of the municipality. It will conclude whit the choice of the installation that allows for the highest irrigation efficiency and the lowest energy and economic costs.

There is scarce knowledge on what are the actual water requirements of persimmon trees (Diospyros kaki). Research on this topic is required to better adjust irrigation water supplies to the actual crop water needs. This study aimed to determine the transpiration coefficients (K) of persimmon ‘Rojo Brillante’ trees and assess how transpiration and K are influenced by environmental factors and the atmospheric demand under Mediterranean climatic conditions. This was done over the course of three growing seasons by means of sap flow measurements calibrated with whole canopy gas exchange chambers. Irrigation was applied aiming to avoid water limiting conditions for trees. This was verified by monitoring the trees’ water status across the growing seasons. Sap flow measurements were linearly and highly correlated (p < 0.001) with canopy transpiration (E) obtained with the whole canopy chambers, but either overestimated or underestimated it. E increased from April until June-July in response to canopy development and increased midday canopy light interception. There was a positive linear relationship between daily E, reference evapotranspiration (ET) and solar radiation. However, a non-linear relationship was obtained between E and vapor pressure deficit (VPD). A positive non-linear relationship (p < 0.01) was observed between K (E / ET in non-limited water conditions) and VPD, illustrating the low stomatal regulation that persimmon trees exhibit in response to air dryness. K varied over the growing seasons following the ET pattern although showing comparatively a slighter decrease during the last part of the growing season. From June to September, K of persimmon ‘Rojo Brillante’ trees with a midday photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) intercepted of ~30 % ranged from 0.45 to 0.56. A strong relationship was obtained between K and percentage of midday intercepted PAR that can be used to estimate K of persimmon ‘Rojo Brillante’ trees with a range of ground canopy covers. This information is useful for deriving specific water use models for persimmon trees to be implemented in decision support systems. The monthly transpiration coefficients here provided will be useful for optimizing irrigation scheduling decisions in persimmon orchards and therefore irrigation water management., This research was funded by the Valencian Institute of Agricultural Research (IVIA), Spain, and “Denominación de origen Kaki Ribera del Xuquer”, Spain, via “Proyecto Integral Caqui”. Complementary funds from the project Preciriego grant number RTC-2017-6365-2 funded by AEI-Feder, Spain, are also acknowledged.

Population growth and increasing food demand coupled with frequent droughts and famine have brought Ethiopia's agricultural growth to a crossroads. The Abbay River basin has untapped potential for irrigation and hydropower development. Numerous models and studies have suggested various irrigation schemes but have failed to precisely identify the irrigation potential or the cropping patterns and water withdrawal requirements of the basin. Investing in irrigation could provide a solution to meet the growing demands for food and development in Ethiopia. Using Mike Hydro model, our research goal was to map and assess the potential irrigation areas and water requirements for the entire Abbay River basin. Ethiopia's total potential irrigation area is estimated to be 7.5 million hectares (ha), and our study estimated that the potential irrigation area in the Abbay River basin is 738 183 ha, which is higher than that of the Abbay Master Plan estimation of 526,000 ha. The average irrigation efficiency in the basin was calculated to be 50%, and the cropping pattern ranged from 1 to 7 crops per year, and we found that maize, cotton, and sugarcane covered the highest proportions of the irrigation areas (22%, 16%, and 13%, respectively). We categorized the regions within the basin into six irrigation schemes and found that nearly all irrigation schemes required more water between December and March. The Megech, Beles, Abbay at Kessie, and Tis Abbay regions required notably more irrigation water than the others, and we estimated the total Abbay basin’s annual irrigation water requirement is 9 Billion Cubic Meters (BCM). Accordingly, our research suggests that the annual irrigation water requirement will increase significantly in the future. Thus, given the anticipated seasonal and interannual water flow variability due to climate change, our study suggests that more storage dams should be constructed to control water variability and satisfy irrigation water requirements in the basin.

Reference evapotranspiration (ETo) is important for irrigated agriculture since from its relationship with the Kc of the culture determines the Evapotranspiration of culture (ETc). The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) established the Penman Monteith method for estimating ETo as a standard, but there are different empirical formulas for this application, so the present work aims to evaluate the evapotranspiration estimate of reference (ETo) by different empirical formulas in the municipality of Confresa-MT. These models were used to estimate ETo because it requires few meteorological elements, compared to the standard method. The climatological data used for the present work were obtained by the meteorological station installed in the experimental area of ​​the IFMT- Campus Confresa. The evaluated methods vary from the standard (FAO-56), so they need a correction factor for more precise determination in the region of Confresa-MT. The Hargreaves-Samani method is the one with the best performance and consequently the lowest correction factor for estimating reference evapotranspiration (ETo). The Jensen-Haise method presents a second option for estimating reference evapotranspiration (ETo) for the municipality of Confresa-MT with satisfactory performance and very similar to the Hargreaves-Samani method. A evapotranspiração de referência (ETo) é importante para a agricultura irrigada e sua relação com o Kc da cultura determina a Evapotranspiração da cultura (ETc). A Organização das Nações Unidas para a Alimentação e a Agricultura (FAO) determinou como padrão o método de Penman Monteith para estimativa de ETo, porém existem diferentes fórmulas empíricas para tal aplicação, sendo assim o presente trabalho tem como objetivo avaliar a estimativa da evapotranspiração de referencia (ETo) por diferentes fórmulas empíricas no município de Confresa-MT. Esses modelos foram utilizados para estimativa da ETo por requerer poucos elementos meteorológicos, em relação ao método padrão. Os dados climatológicos utilizados para o presente trabalho foram obtidos pela estação meteorológica instalada na área experimental do IFMT- Campus Confresa. Os métodos avaliados apresentam variações em relação ao padrão (FAO-56), assim necessitam de um fator de correção para determinação mais precisa na região de Confresa-MT. O método de Hargreaves-Samani é aquele que apresentaram melhor desempenho e consequentemente menor fator de correção para estimativa de evapotranspiração de referência (ETo). O método Jensen-Haise se apresenta com uma segunda opção para estimativa da evapotranspiração de referência (ETo) para o município de Confresa-MT com desempenho satisfatório e bem similar ao método de Hargreaves-Samani.

Introduction Soil compaction reduces soil porosity and thus, increases the resistance and bulk density of the soil. These changes limit water and air movement and root penetration in the soil and ultimately, they may reduce the seed germination and the crop yield. For planting sugar beets, tractors and equipment need to move several times on the ground, which is a factor in soil re-compaction and the loss of the effects of previous tillage. Therefore, if, after planting, inter-row tillage was done, it can have a positive effect on reducing the bulk density of the soil and it may even increase yield. Materials and Methods An experiment was conducted to determine the effect of inter-row tillage on the sugar beet yield and its quality and water use efficiency during two years cropping period (2016-2017) in Ekbatan Research Station, Hamadan with loam texture soil. A strip plot experiment with eight treatments and three replications was used. Irrigation regimes consist of 100% of sugar beet water requirement (I1) and 75% of sugar beet water requirement (I2) were considered as main plots. Inter-row tillage operations consist of combined cultivator equipped with chisel and crescent blades to 20-25 cm soil depth (T1), a simple cultivator equipped with crescent blades (T2), crescent cultivator + inter-row subsoiling to 30-35 cm soil depth (T3), combined cultivator equipped with rotary and sweep blades to 20-25 cm soil depth were considered (T4 ) as sub-plots. During the experiment, some physical properties of soil including bulk density and soil cone index were measured. At the end of the growth season, the root yield and yield of white sugar were measured and analyzed statistically. Results and Discussion The results showed that the effect of inter-row tillage methods on the soil bulk density and soil cone index was significant. The T3 treatment (crescent cultivator + inter-row subsoiling to 30-35 cm soil depth) had the highest effect on reducing the cone index and bulk density of soil, but the lowest root yield was obtained. Due to the low spacing of rows (50 cm) in the sugar beet cultivation, as well as the structure of the subsoiler and its depth, it is possible that the subsoiling caused the moving of the roots and minor damage to it. The effects of irrigation and inter-row tillage and their interactions on quantitative and qualitative yield of sugar beet were not significant. The results of analysis of variance of treatment effect on the water use efficiency showed that the effect of inter-row tillage on the water use efficiency was not significant. The effect of water requirement on the water use efficiency on the basis of sugar and white sugar performance was significant at 5% probability level. The treatment of 75% of water requirement increased the efficiency of water use based on the root yield, sugar yield and white sugar yield by 4%, 14% and 7%, respectively. Therefore, with the goal of reducing water consumption and not significantly reducing the yield, after plant establishment, it can reduce water use by about 25%. Conclusion The effect of inter-row tillage on the cone index and bulk density of soil was significant and subsoiling treatment caused a further reduction of these two indices compared to the other inter-row tillage methods. The effect of inter-row tillage and water requirement on root and sugar yields was not significant. According to the results, after planting completely establishment, the water use can be reduced by about 25% (this decrease in the total length of sugar beet growing was about 15%).

[ES] El objeto del presente proyecto consiste en el diseño de un sistema de riego localizado con bombeo fotovoltaico en una finca de cítricos en el término municipal de Onda (Castellón), cuya superficie es de 16,17 hectáreas. Para ello, primero se estudiarán las necesidades hídricas del cultivo en cuestión de acuerdo con las condiciones climatologías de la zona de implantación y del propio cultivo. Posteriormente, el proyecto incluye el dimensionado de las subunidades de riego y de la red de transporte para poder suministrar por gravedad desde la balsa el agua requerida. También, se lleva a cabo la elección de los elementos hidráulicos (bomba, válvulas, filtros y contadores) y el diseño del sistema de energía solar fotovoltaica. Para el llenado de la balsa, la finca dispone de un pozo propio desde el cual se extraerá agua a través de un bombeo fotovoltaico aislado de la red eléctrica. El agua extraída del pozo se almacenará en una balsa existente, con capacidad suficiente, desde donde se distribuirá a la explotación de acuerdo con las necesidades hídricas de la época del año considerada. El pozo, la balsa de regulación, los paneles fotovoltaicos, el cabezal de riego y un pequeño almacén, para la protección de filtros y productos de labor puntuales de la época de cultivo se situarán en la zona norte de la finca., [EN] The main objective of this project is the design of a drip irrigation system with photovoltaic pumping in a citrus exploitation in the municipality of Onda (Castellón), whose surface is 16.17 hectares. First, the water needs of the crop will be studied in accordance with the climatic conditions of the implantation area and of the characteristics of the crop. Subsequently, the project includes the dimensioning of the irrigation subunits and the water distribution network to be able to supply the required water by gravity from a deposit. Additionally, the choice of hydraulic elements (pump, valves, filters and water meters) and the design of the photovoltaic solar energy system are carried out. To fill the deposit, the plot has its own well from which water will be extracted through an isolated photovoltaic pump. The water extracted from the well will be stored in the existing deposit with sufficient capacity. Then, it will be distributed to the citrus exploitation according to the water needs of the time of year considered. The well, the water deposit, the photovoltaic panels, the irrigation head and a small warehouse, for the protection of filters and punctual labor products of the growing season, will be in the northern part of the plot.

Citrus latifolia is increasingly being cultivated in Mediterranean areas, where the need for precise irrigation implies a sound knowledge of the crop's water requirements, which is carried out by monitoring the tree water status in the plant-soil-atmosphere system. Two year-old lime trees (Citrus latifolia Tan. cv. Bearss) were cultivated in 45 L weighing pot-lysimeters filled with a clay-loam soil and equipped with soil water sensors for recording the real-time soil water status. Irrigation, drainage, pot weight, and agro-meteorological variables were also recorded in real-time. Plant water relations - stem (Ψ) and leaf (Ψ) water potentials, and leaf gas exchange - were periodically measured throughout the experiment. The automated irrigation protocol based on the volumetric soil water content was set to prevent tree water stress (with mean seasonal values of Ψ above -0.8 MPa and 7 μmol m s and 80 mmol m s, for net phtosynthesis and stomatal conductance, respectively). From the soil water pot balance, the computed fortnightly ET mean values throughout the growing season varied from 0.25 to 2.56 L plant day in winter and summer months, respectively. Maximum ET values occurred in July when evaporative demand was highest and lime fruits were in their most active growing phase. For day length, lime tree biomass changes were negligible, and the pot tree weight variations served for ET water balance validation (r=0.92***). The contribution of this work is that it establishes a scalable weighing lysimeter prototype for determining the ET of lime trees grown in Mediterranean semi-arid conditions, using real-time soil water balance monitoring managed by an irrigation automation protocol. This approach could be replicated for precise ET measurements in other crops., This research was supported by Spanish National Plan-FEDER-UE-AGL2016-77282-C03-1 R and PID2019-106226RB-C2 1/AEI/10.13039/ 501100011033, and Seneca Foundation of Region of Murcia (19903/ GERM/15) projects. Conesa M.R. acknowledges the postdoctoral financial support received from the Spanish Juan de la Cierva program (FJCI -2017 -32045)

Water resources is one of the inputs in rice production. In agricultural sector, water is considered as free good or priceless despite having a high use value. That implicated to the inefficient use of water in each provinces of Indonesia including East Java with no exception. This study aims to estimate the value of water and water requirements in agriculture especially rice in East Java. This study uses two quantitative analysis methods. The first method is the Penman-Montieth to calculate the water footprint and water requirements for rice. The second is benefit transfer method to estimate the value of water in rice production. Investigated areas are cities and municipals in East Java, while the study period is 2008 to 2011.The results showed that: (1) the average of water footprint in East Java from 2008 to 2011 was 3.556 m3/ton. This value is affected by climate change, fertilizers, and yields. (2) The average of water requirements for rice in East Java from 2008 to 2011 was 35.913.244.065 m3. This value is greater than the value of water allocation is determined by the government. (3) The estimated value of water for rice production in East Java was Rp 4.500.060 per hectare for one growing season.Keywords: Water Footprint, Water Requirements, Value of Water, AgricultureJEL: Q1, Q25

The agricultural sector is one of the pillars of the Moroccan economy. In addition to contributing 15% in GDP and providing 35% of employment opportunities, it has an impact on growth rates that are negatively or positively affected by climatic conditions and rainfall in particular. During drought years characterized by a decline in agricultural production and in particular cereal production, the growth of the Moroccan economy was severely affected and the kingdom's food imports increased significantly. In this context, it's important to assess the impact of agricultural drought on cereal yields and to develop early yield prediction models, as well as to determine the future impact of climate change on wheat yield and water requirements. The aim of this work is, firstly to further understand the linkage between cereal yield and agricultural drought in Morocco. In order to identify this drought, we used agricultural drought indices from remotely sensed satellite data. In addition, we used the outputs of Land Data Assimilation System (LDAS). Secondly, to develop empirical models for early prediction of cereal yields at provincial scale. To achieve this goal, we built forecasting models using multi-source data as predictors, including remote sensing-based indices, weather data and regional climate indices. And to build these models, we relied on machine learning algorithms such as Multiple Linear Regression (MLR), Support Vector Machine (SVM), Random Forest (RF) and eXtreme Gradient Boost (XGBoost). Finally, to evaluate the impact of climate change on the wheat yield its water requirements. To do this, we relied on five regional climate models available in the Med-CORDEX database under two scenarios RCP4.5 and RCP8.5, as well as the AquaCrop model and we based on three periods, the reference period 1991-2010, the second period 2041-2060 and the third period 2081-2100. The results showed that there is a close correlation between cereals yield and drought indices related to canopy condition during the heading stage (March and April) and which are related to surface temperature during the development stage in January -February, and which are related to soil moisture during the emergence stage in November -December. The results also showed that the outputs of LDAS are able to accurately monitor agricultural drought. Concerning, cereal yield forecasting, the results showed that combining data from multiple sources outperformed models based on one data set only. In this context, the XGBoost was able to predict cereal yield as early as January (about four months before harvest) with satisfactory statistical metrics (R² = 0.88 and RMSE = 0.22 t. ha^-1). Regarding the impact of climate change on wheat yield and water requirements, the results showed that the increase in air temperature will result in a shortening of the wheat growth cycle by about 50 days. The results also showed a decrease in wheat yield up to 30% if the rising in CO2 was not taken into account. The effect of fertilizing of CO2 can offset the yield losses, and yield can increase up to 27 %. Finally, water requirements are expected to decrease by 13 to 42%, and this decrease is associated with a change in temporal patterns, with the requirement peak coming two months earlier than under current conditions.; Le secteur agricole est l'un des piliers de l'économie marocaine. En plus de contribuer à 15% au Produit Intérieur Brut (PIB) et de fournir 35% des opportunités d'emploi, il a un impact sur les taux de croissance. Ces dernières sont affectées négativement ou positivement par les conditions climatiques et la pluviométrie en particulier. Lors des années de sécheresse, caractérisées par une baisse de la production agricole, en particulier celle des céréales, la croissance de l'économie marocaine a été sévèrement affectée et les importations alimentaires du royaume ont augmenté de manière significative. Dans ce contexte, il est important d'évaluer l'impact de la sécheresse agricole sur les rendements céréaliers et de développer des modèles de prévision précoce des rendements, ainsi que de déterminer l'impact futur du changement climatique sur le rendement du blé et leurs besoins en eau. Le but de ce travail est, premièrement, d'approfondir la compréhension de la relation entre le rendement des céréales et la sécheresse agricole au Maroc. Afin de détecter la sécheresse, nous avons utilisé des indices de sécheresse agricole provenant de différentes données satellitaires. En outre, nous avons utilisé les sorties du système d'assimilation des données terrestres (LDAS). Deuxièmement, nous avons développé des modèles empiriques de la prévision précoce des rendements des céréales à l'échelle provinciale. Pour atteindre cet objectif, nous avons construit des modèles de prévision en utilisant des données multi-sources comme prédicteurs, y compris des indices basés sur la télédétection, des données météorologiques et des indices climatiques régionaux. Pour construire ces modèles, nous nous sommes appuyés sur des algorithmes de machine learning tels que : Multiple Linear Regression (MLR), Support Vector Machine (SVM), Random Forest (RF) et eXtreme Gradient Boost (XGBoost). Enfin, nous avons évalué l'impact du changement climatique sur le rendement du blé et ses besoins en eau. Pour ce faire, nous nous sommes appuyés sur cinq modèles climatiques régionaux disponibles dans la base de données Med-CORDEX sous deux scénarios RCP4.5 et RCP8.5, ainsi que sur le modèle AquaCrop et nous nous sommes basés sur trois périodes, la période de référence 1991-2010, la deuxième période 2041-2060 et la troisième période 2081-2100. Les résultats ont montré qu'il y a une corrélation étroite entre le rendement des céréales et les indices de sécheresse liés à l'état de végétation pendant le stade d'épiaison (mars et avril) et qui sont liés à la température de surface pendant le stade de développement en janvier-février, et qui sont liés à l'humidité du sol pendant le stade d'émergence en novembre-décembre. Les résultats ont également montré que les sorties du LDAS sont capables de suivre avec précision la sécheresse agricole. En ce qui concerne la prévision du rendement, les résultats ont montré que la combinaison des données provenant de sources multiples a donné des meilleurs résultats que les modèles basés sur une seule source. Dans ce contexte, le modèle XGBoost a été capable de prévoir le rendement des céréales dès le mois de janvier (environ quatre mois avant la récolte) avec des métriques statistiques satisfaisants (R² = 0.88 et RMSE = 0.22 t. ha^-1). En ce qui concerne l'impact du changement climatique sur le rendement et les besoins en eau du blé, les résultats ont montré que l'augmentation de la température de l'air entraînera un raccourcissement du cycle de croissance du blé d'environ 50 jours.[...]

The coexistence of different species of large herbivores (ungulates) in grasslands and savannas has fascinated ecologists for decades. However, changes in climate, land‐use and trophic structure of ecosystems increasingly jeopardise the persistence of such diverse assemblages. Body size has been used successfully to explain ungulate niche differentiation with regard to food requirements and predation sensitivity. But this single trait axis insufficiently captures interspecific differences in water requirements and thermoregulatory capacity and thus sensitivity to climate change. Here, we develop a two‐dimensional trait space of body size and minimum dung moisture content that characterises the combined food and water requirements of large herbivores. From this, we predict that increased spatial homogeneity in water availability in drylands reduces the number of ungulate species that will coexist. But we also predict that extreme droughts will cause the larger, water‐dependent grazers as wildebeest, zebra and buffalo–dominant species in savanna ecosystems – to be replaced by smaller, less water‐dependent species. Subsequently, we explore how other constraints such as predation risk and thermoregulation are connected to this two‐dimensional framework. Our novel framework integrates multiple simultaneous stressors for herbivores and yields an extensive set of testable hypotheses about the expected changes in large herbivore community composition following climate change.

The aim of this study was to estimate the water needs of grapevines (Vitis vinifera L.) in the different regions of Poland. The grapevines water requirements, considered as the crop evapotranspiration, were determined using the plant coefficient method. The grapevine plants crop evapotranspiration was measured using the reference evapotranspiration and plant coefficients. The plant coefficients were adapted to the reference evapotranspiration that was calculated using the Blaney Criddle’s formula, modified for Polish conditions by Żakowicz. The grapevines water needs were determined for five agro climatic regions of Poland with the representative meteorological stations. The calculations of grapevines water requirements have been carried out for the thirty year period determined from 1981 to 2010. The study based on the six month growing season established from May 1 to October 31. As the irrigation period, four months, including May, June, July and August, were considered. The highest grapevines water needs (440 mm), during the growing season, in the north west and central east region of Poland were observed. While the lowest water requirements in the south east (414 mm) and north east (415 mm) region of the country were revealed. During the irrigation period, the highest grapevines water needs occurred in the central north west (355 mm) and central east (353 mm) region of Poland, while the lowest (329 mm) – in the south east region of the country. The upward time trend of the grapevines water requirements was observed both in the growing season and in the irrigation period. With the exception of the central north west region, this time trend was significant throughout Poland. The highest increase of grapevines water needs in the growing season (by 6.9 mm in each subsequent ten year period) in the central east and south east region of Poland was revealed. In the irrigation period, the highest rise of grapevines water requirements in the south west (7.4 mm decade-1) and south east (7.6 mm decade-1) region of the country was noted. The highest rainfall deficit was observed in the central north west region of Poland; 125 mm during the growing season, and 117 mm in the irrigation period.

Increased production per unit volume of consumed water requires more precise planning in selecting the appropriate irrigation method for the optimal use of available water resources in the agricultural sector. The province of Khuzestan has been ranked third with 13.8 percent of the total date production of the country. Therefore, using pressurized irrigation methods with the goal of optimal utilization of water resources is inevitable. This research was carried out with the aim of investigating the possibility of utilizing subsurface drip irrigation systems in date orchards and determining the most suitable irrigation treatments in terms of yield and water use efficiency for Kabkab cultivar. Mohebbi and Alihoori (2013), in a study conducted with four irrigation treatments including surface irrigation and drip irrigation with 75% and 100% cumulative evaporation of class A evaporation pan in Hormozgan province, showed that despite different amounts of water in treatment irrigations, there was no significant difference in fruit yield, vegetative traits, and shading surface. The highest and lowest water use efficiency was obtained from drip irrigation treatment with 75% water and surface irrigation treatment with water content equal to 100% cumulative evaporation from class A evaporation pan. Therefore, irrigation with drip irrigation method and 75% cumulative evaporation from class A pans were recommended for irrigation of palm groves. The results of Mohebi’s (2005) study on comparing the effects of two equivalent amounts of water, 75% and 100% evaporation of class A pan in two methods of drip irrigation and surface irrigation on the growth and development of the palm cultivar Peeyaram showed that, among different treatments, there were significant differences in vegetative growth indices such as the number of leaflets, the trunk diameter, and the shading surface. However, in terms of leaf number, yield and quality characteristics of fruit including pH, moisture, soluble solids and total sugar content, the differences among treatments were not significant. The irrigation interval was two days in a drip method and seven days in a surface treatment. The results also showed that although different treatments provided different levels of water for trees, there was no significant difference between treatments in terms of yield and quality traits. The effect of treatments on vegetative traits and yield was not significant. Water consumption in 75% evaporation treatment in drip irrigation method was as much as about 40% of water use in surface irrigation. Therefore, treatment of 75% evaporation from the pan was introduced in the drip irrigation treatment method.

The ash-leaved maple (Acer negundo L.) has low habitat requirements, which is why this species is often used in the reclamation or industrial areas. Development of the reclamation plantings depends on the optimal water soil conditions that can be controlled by watering treatments. However, the use of irrigation requires determining the water needs of cultivated species. The objective of the study was to evaluate the water needs of ash-leaved maple in the reclamation plantings, in the period of over three years after planting. The water needs of ash-leaved maple were determined using the crop coefficients method. Potential evapotranspiration was calculated using the Blaney-Criddle’s formula that was modified for Polish conditions by Żakowicz. The water needs of ash-leaved maple were assessed for five agro-climatic regions of Poland, in the years 1981-2010. The water needs of ash-leaved maple in the growing period (April-October) were the highest in the C-E (638 mm) and C-N-W (637 mm) regions, and the lowest in the N-E (598 mm) and S-E (601 mm) regions. In July, the highest water needs were noted in the C-N-W region (149 mm) and the lowest in the S-W region (129 mm). In the studied thirty-years period, there was a significant upward trend in the water needs of ash-leaved maple both during the growing season (except for the C-N-W region) and in July, in all considered regions.

This research examines the effects of two irrigation strategies on water use efficiency and fruit yield components of ‘Royal Gala’ and ‘Brookfield Gala’ apple orchards in south-central Chile. The study was carried out during the 2008–2009 and 2009–2010 growing seasons at two sites. A randomized block experimental design was established with two water application treatments: theoretical volume required by the plant (T1) and farm protocol (T2). Soil water content, plant water potential and yield components were evaluated. The soil water content in T2 was near field capacity while T1 was between the permanent wilting point and field capacity for both seasons and varieties. With T1, the seasonal volume applied was 21 to 28% less compared to T2, with season savings of 1600 m3 ha−1. No effect on plant water potential was observed. In ‘Royal Gala’ the lower volume applied in T1 did not lead to significant differences in fruit diameter, weight, or yield in either season as compared to T2. In ‘Brookfield Gala’, yield during the 2008–2009 season increased significantly, by 22.9% in treatment T1, and in the 2009–2010 season, significant reductions (p < 0.05) in fruit diameter (5.3%) and weight (12.9%) were observed in T2. Productivity per volume of applied water in T1 was 32% to 56% greater than that obtained with T2. The results show the effectiveness of the irrigation strategy considering the theoretical volume of water required by the plant.

Exploring alternative supplementation sources capable of maximizing feed and water efficiency in nursing Holstein calves is often ignored. The goals herein involve investigating the effects of two isoenergetic supplements on a nonmedicated milk replacer diet on total water intake, milk water intake, fresh water intake, feed intake parameters, and performance of Holstein nursing bull calves. Twenty-three animals (body weight [BW] = 94.67 ± 12.07 kg, age = 67 days old) were randomly assigned to one of three treatments for 68 days: control (CON; ad libitum milk replacer, n = 7), carbohydrate supplement (CHO; corn starch on top of ad libitum milk replacer-based diet, n = 8), or lipid supplement (FAT; menhaden fish oil on top of ad libitum milk replacer-based diet, n = 8). The isoenergetic supplementation consisted of 3% menhaden fish oil addition on DM basis for FAT. This was matched energetically with corn starch for the CHO group resulting in a 7% composition in DM basis. All animals were provided free access to mineral mix and 120 g daily dried microbrewer’s spent grains (BG). Data were analyzed with the GLMMIX procedure of SAS in a completely randomized design with the diets as a fixed effect. Dry matter intake (DMI) adjusted by average daily gain (ADG; DMI/ADG) resulted in significantly lower values for supplemented groups with CON = 2.48, CHO = 2.38, and FAT = 2.27 kg/kg (ADG) (P = 0.033). Energy intake values were lower for CON when analyzing metabolizable energy intake (P < 0.0001), net energy intake for maintenance (P < 0.0001), and net energy intake for gain (P < 0.0001), followed by CHO, and then FAT. Total water intake (P < 0.0001), milk water intake (P < 0.0001), and fresh water intake (P < 0.0001) all resulted in CHO consuming 0.5 L or less water than the other two treatments. Energy requirements as digestible energy (P < 0.0001), metabolizable energy (P < 0.0001), net energy for maintenance (P < 0.0001), and net energy for gain (P < 0.0001) were lower for CHO, followed by CON, and then FAT having the highest requirements. Similar results were observed for residual feed (RFI; P = 0.006) and residual water intakes (RTWI; P = 0.902). Ultimately, no performance differences were detected with regards to BW (CON = 146.71, CHO = 146.25, and FAT = 150.48 kg; P > 0.1). These results indicate that lipid-based and starch-based supplementation can potentially increase feed efficiency and decrease voluntary water intake without adversely affecting performance.

The aim of this study was to verify the response of 13 American asparagus cultivars cultivated for green spear on surface postharvest drip irrigation. Irrigation, used to compensate for periodic deficiencies in precipitation, allows for high- and good-quality crops for many species. The field experiment was carried out in 2006–2008 on a very light sandy soil in central Europe (Poland). Irrigation treatments were applied using the tensiometer indications. Water requirements of asparagus were calculated on the base of reference evapotranspiration and crop coefficients. The following evaluations were made: Height, diameter, and number of summer stalks, as well marketable yield, weight, and number of consumption green spears. Drip irrigation applied for 2 years (2006–2007) in the postharvest period had a positive effect on all studied traits in both summer stalks and green spears in 2007–2008. A significant increase in the height, number, and diameter of summer stalks, as well an increase in the marketable yield, weight, and number of green spears was observed for most of the cultivars. In general, postharvest drip irrigation of asparagus cultivated in very light sandy soil significantly contributes to the increase in productivity of American cultivars of this species.

Reliable measures of climate variables and the availability of alternative and safe methods are fundamental in estimating reference evapotranspiration (ETo) under unfavorable technical and financial conditions. The objective of this study was to evaluate the performance of the reference evapotranspiration estimation, in hourly periodicity, using the Moretti-Jerszurki-Silva models (EToMJS(ψair); EToMJS(ψair;Ra)), which considers air temperature (T) and relative air humidity (RH) data measured in an alternative station. The calibration and validation of the alternative station measurements were performed using data from automatic meteorological stations in Curitiba in Paraná (climate type Cfb) and Santa Rita de Cássia in Bahia (climate type Aw), Brazil. The use of the alternative station for hourly measurements of air temperature and relative air humidity in the analyzed climate types and locations were promising. The Moretti-Jerszurki-Silva models were robust in the analyzed locations, indicating satisfactory performance for the hourly periodicity. The Moretti-Jerszurki-Silva method that uses atmospheric water potential and solar radiation (EToMJS(ψair;Ra)) provided better adjustments and estimates of the hourly reference evapotranspiration, as opposed to the standard Penman-Monteith model. RESUMO Medidas confiáveis de variáveis climáticas e a disponibilidade de métodos alternativos seguros são fundamentais para estimar a evapotranspiração de referência (ETo) em condições técnicas e financeiras desfavoráveis. Objetivou-se no presente estudo avaliar o desempenho da estimativa da evapotranspiração de referência, na periodicidade horária, com os modelos Moretti-Jerszurki-Silva (EToMJS(ψair); EToMJS(ψair;Ra)), utilizando dados de temperatura (T) e umidade relativa (UR) do ar, medidos em estação alternativa. A calibração e validação das leituras da estação alternativa foram realizadas com dados de estações meteorológicas automáticas de Curitiba no Paraná (tipo climático Cfb), e Santa Rita de Cássia na Bahia (tipo climático Aw). O uso da estação alternativa para medições horárias da temperatura e umidade relativa do ar dos locais e tipos climáticos analisados foi promissor. Os modelos Moretti-Jerszurki-Silva foram robustos nos locais analisados, indicando desempenho satisfatório para a periodicidade horária. O modelo Moretti-Jerszurki-Silva que considera o uso do potencial hídrico atmosférico e radiação solar (EToMJS(ψair;Ra)) proporcionou melhores ajustes e estimativas da evapotranspiração de referência horária, considerando o modelo padrão Penman-Monteith.

The forage maturation hypothesis (FMH) states that energy intake for ungulates is maximised when forage biomass is at intermediate levels. Nevertheless, metabolic allometry and different digestive systems suggest that resource selection should vary across ungulate species. By combining GPS relocations with remotely sensed data on forage characteristics and surface water, we quantified the effect of body size and digestive system in determining movements of 30 populations of hindgut fermenters (equids) and ruminants across biomes. Selection for intermediate forage biomass was negatively related to body size, regardless of digestive system. Selection for proximity to surface water was stronger for equids relative to ruminants, regardless of body size. To be more generalisable, we suggest that the FMH explicitly incorporate contingencies in body size and digestive system, with small-bodied ruminants selecting more strongly for potential energy intake, and hindgut fermenters selecting more strongly for surface water.

[ES] El objetivo de este trabajo final de grado es la puesta en marcha de un sistema de riego por aspersión en una finca destinada a la producción de cultivos herbáceos (cebolla/nabo) en el término municipal de Almansa (Albacete). Se dispone de una única parcela cuyas dimensiones son 10 hectáreas aproximadamente. El proyecto contendrá un análisis del funcionamiento y características del sistema de los diferentes equipos de riego por aspersión, con la intención de decantarse por sistemas actuales que trabajen a media o baja presión. Para la elección más adecuada se diseñará la red de distribución del agua con los cálculos hidráulicos pertinentes. Se procederá a la sectorización del sistema y se estudiarán diferentes distribuciones de los aspersores dentro de la parcela con el objetivo de obtener altas eficiencias de aplicación. Además, se estimarán las necesidades hídricas de diferentes especies que serán cultivadas de acuerdo con la climatología de la zona y características propias de las especies cultivadas. El suministro de agua será a partir de un pozo ya perforado, donde hará falta seleccionar un grupo de presión para elevar el agua y garantizar la energía suficiente para que los aspersores rieguen con la uniformidad establecida. La elección final se basará principalmente en la instalación que menos costes genere tanto de instalación como de gasto energético, sin dejar de lado los parámetros de eficiencia del riego., [EN] The aim of this final degree project is the implementation of a sprinkler irrigation system on a farm for the production of arable crops (onion/turnip) in the municipality of Almansa (Albacete). There is a single plot of land measuring approximately 10 hectares. The project will contain an analysis of the operation and system characteristics of the different sprinkler irrigation equipment, with the intention of opting for current systems working at medium or low pressure. In order to make the most appropriate choice, the water distribution network will be designed with the relevant hydraulic calculations. The system will be sectorised and different distributions of the sprinklers within the plot will be studied in order to obtain high application efficiencies. In addition, the water requirements of the different species that will be cultivated will be estimated according to the climatology of the area and the characteristics of the cultivated species. The water supply will be from a well already drilled, where it will be necessary to select a pressure group to raise the water and guarantee sufficient energy for the sprinklers to irrigate with the established uniformity. The final choice will be based mainly on the installation that generates the lowest costs both in terms of installation and energy expenditure, without neglecting the parameters of irrigation efficiency.

[ES] El presente proyecto tiene como objetivo el diseño y desarrollo de un modelo agro-hidrológico en parcelas de uva de transformación en el entorno de Requena-Utiel. En la primera fase del proyecto, se utilizan datos de la misión de satélite Sentinel -2 de la UE y de la Agencia Espacial Europea. Para el desarrollo del modelo agro-hidrológico se emplearán técnicas de modelización que, basadas en la sensorización mediante teledetección satelital, permitirán la obtención de valores para la humedad del suelo. Para ello se elaborará un script de automatización de descarga de datos desde Google Earth Code Editor para la serie temporal estudiada y se estudiarán los índices de cultivo que mejor representen el estado fenológico y de estrés de la planta. Tomando la fase previa como datos de partida y, gracias a los trabajos de recopilación de datos climáticos y caracterización de las parcelas realizados por las entidades colaboradoras en el marco del proyecto INNOBOBAL, se llevará a cabo la determinación de un modelo agro-hidrológico basado en la herramienta AQUACROP de la FAO mediante la adaptación del modelo al cultivo de la vid. A partir del tratamiento y discusión de los resultados se obtendrán conclusiones sobre la evolución de las necesidades de riego y se evaluará la metodología empleada y futuras líneas de actuación., [EN] The objective of this project is the design and development of an agro-hydrological model in transformation grape plots in the Requena-Utiel environment. In the first phase of the project, data from the Sentinel -2 satellite mission of the EU and the European Space Agency will be used. For the development of the agro-hydrological model, modeling techniques will be used that, based on sensorization by satellite remote sensing, will allow to obtain values for soil moisture. For this, a data download automation script from Google Earth Code Editor will be elaborated for the time series studied and the cultivation indexes, which represent the phenological and stress state of the plant will be studied. Taking the previous phase as starting data and, thanks to the climatic data collection and characterization of the plots carried out by the collaborating entities within the framework of the INNOBOBAL project, the determination of an agro-hydrological model based on the FAO AQUACROP tool by adapting the model to vine cultivation. From the treatment and discussion of the results, conclusions will be obtained on the evolution of irrigation needs and the methodology used and future lines of action will be evaluated.

Специфичност у развијености кореновог система, његова слаба усисна моћ, развијеност у односу на надземну вегетативну масу, висок економски и укупан биолошки принос, мали садржај суве материје и висок садржај воде у вегетативним и генеративним органима, различито време и начини сетве, односно, садње разлози су због чега поврће има повећане захтеве за земљиштем и водом. Приликом избора земљишта за гајење поврћа, у различитим системима производње, неопходно је обратити пажњу на следеће особине: нагиб (инклинација) терена, ниво подземних вода, закоровљеност земљишта, експозицију терена, тип и плодност земљишта. Због вероватних климатских промена, глобалног и регионалног карактера, долази до великог смањења просечне резерве квалитетне воде за пиће и наводњавање. Имајући у виду поменуту чињеницу треба истаћи да интензивна повртарска производња се не може замислити без додатног наводњавања читаве године на отвореном пољу и у различитим облицима и типовима заштићеног простора. У сушним годинама падне свега 190‒200 mm. Поред количине падавина пресудан значај на обезбеђеност поврћа водом има распоред падавина у току вегетације. То значи да је дефицит падавина у зависности од биљне врсте и дужине вегетације, начина и времена производње на нивоу од 150 до 550 mm, минимум 40‒80 mm код врста кратке вегетације. Критичан сушни период се јавља током априла и маја месеца у условима сувог пролећа и током друге половине јуна па све до краја септембра, понекад и у првој половини октобра месеца. Заливна норма је условљена типом земљишта, фазом раста и развића, дубином кореновог система, дневном потрошњом воде на евапотранспирацију и техничким карактеристикама система за наводњавање. Потрошња воде на евапотранспирацију у повртарству се креће од 1,0 пa до преко 6,5 mm дневно у зависности од усева и суме радијације у Ј/cm2 или W/m2. Vegetables have high water requirements due to a specific structure of their root system, its low suction power, root development in comparison to aboveground vegetative mass, high economic and total biological yields, low dry matter content and high water content in the vegetative and generative organs, as well as different dates and ways of planting. When selecting the soil for vegetable growing in various production systems, it is necessary to take into account the following aspects: slope (degree of inclination) of the land, groundwater level, weediness of the soil, field exposure, soil type and fertility. Due to probable climate changes of global and regional character, average reserves of quality drinking water and irrigation water are dramatically decreasing. Bearing in mind this fact, it should be pointed out that intensive vegetable growing is unlikely without additional irrigation throughout the year, both in the open field and various greenhouses. Dry years see only 190‒200 mm precipitation. In addition to the quantity of precipitation, the distribution of precipitation during the growing period is also crucial for water supply to the vegetables. This means that 150‒550 mm precipitation marks the deficit level depending on the crop species, growing period, mode and time of growing, with the minimum of 40‒80 mm for species with a short growing period. The critical dry periods include April and May (dry spring) and from the second half of June until late September, stretching even to mid-October in some cases. Watering norm depends on the soil type, growth and development phases, the depth of the root system, daily water consumption due to evapotranspiration and technical characteristics of the irrigation system. Water consumption due to evapotranspiration in vegetable production ranges from 1.0 to over 6.5 mm per day, depending on the crop and sum of radiation (Ј/cm2 or W/m2). Посебна издања / Српска академија наука и уметности ; књ. 197. Одељење хемијских и биолошких наука ; књ. 19.

[ES] El objetivo de este Trabajo Fin de Grado (TFG) es la implantación de un sistema de riego localizado y automatizado en la Finca "Casa Bella" situada en el término municipal de Ontinyent (Valencia). Actualmente, la explotación agrícola está en secano. La mayor parte del cultivo en la explotación corresponde a la variedad Arbequina y se ha plantado mediante un marco de cultivo superintensivo en espaldera de 4 x 1,5 m. Esta variedad, plantada muy recientemente, requiere de un riego complementario ya que la precipitación anual (inferior a 400 mm/año) del municipio no es suficiente para la viabilidad del cultivo. En la espaldera, la línea de goteros irá sujeta al alambre, de esta manera la tubería no interferirá en la eliminación de malas hierbas y al mismo tiempo quedará más protegida de posibles daños mecánicos. Una pequeña parte de la finca, de mayor antigüedad y ya en producción, está plantada con un marco de cultivo de 6x5 m. También se diseñará el sistema de riego para estos olivos con el evidente aumento de producción de aceituna que se obtendrá con el riego En primer lugar, se determinarán las necesidades de riego del cultivo y los parámetros de riego a nivel de parcela más adecuados, con la ayuda de un estudio del medio físico de la zona de riego. Además, se calcularán y dimensionar las subunidades de riego, la red de distribución y el cabezal de riego, que incluirá el sistema de filtrado, fertirrigación, control y automatización. Las necesidades de agua se cubrirán con el agua proveniente de un pozo cercano ubicado en la parte baja de la finca., [EN] The purpose of this Final Degree Project (TFG) is the implementation of a localized and automated irrigation system in the "Casa Bella" Farm located in the municipality of Ontinyent (Valencia). Currently, the farm is in dry land. Most of the cultivation on the farm corresponds to the Arbequina variety and has been planted using a 4x1.5 m2 super-intensive trellis cultivation frame. This variety, planted very recently, requires complementary irrigation since the annual rainfall (less than 400 mm / year) in the municipality is not enough for the viability of the crop. In the trellis, the dripper line will be attached to the wire, in this way the pipe will not interfere in the elimination of weeds and at the same time it will be more protected from possible mechanical damage. A small part of the farm, older and already in production, is planted with a 6x5 m2 cultivation frame. The irrigation system for these olive trees will also be designed with the evident increase in olive production that will be obtained with irrigation. In the first place, the irrigation needs of the crop will be determined, as well as the irrigation parameters, for which a study of the physical environment of the study area has been carried out. In addition, the irrigation subunits, the distribution network and the irrigation head will be calculated and dimensioned, which will include the filtering system, fertigation, control and automation. The water needs will be covered with water from a nearby well located in the lower part of the farm.

[ES] El objetivo del presente proyecto es la transformación de secano a regadío de una finca en el término municipal de Moixent. Para ello, se dispone de una única parcela con varios cultivos con un total de 20,40 ha. Se pretende aumentar la productividad y optimizar los rendimientos para asegurar su viabilidad. La explotación agrícola posee distintos cultivares de vid, olivo y almendro, cultivos que en regadío aumentan sus producciones, así pues, el cambio evitará el estrés hídrico que se produce en las épocas de sequías, muy comunes en los últimos años. Se pretende instalar una bomba sumergible en un pozo de la propiedad, bombeando agua a una balsa situada en el punto más alto de la finca. Además, se estimarán las necesidades hídricas de cada cultivo y se diseñará una red de riego localizado alimentado desde la balsa para poder regar por gravedad. Este diseño conlleva un estudio agronómico de necesidades y parámetros de riego, y a continuación se efectuará el diseño hidráulico del sistema de riego, tanto de subunidades como de la red. Finalmente, se elegirán y dimensionarán todos aquellos elementos de filtrado e impulsión requeridos para el riego de las parcelas., [EN] The objective of this project is the transformation of dry land to irrigation of a estate in the municipality of Moixent. For this, there is a single plot with several crops with a total of 20,40ha. It is intended to increase productivity and optimize yields to ensure its viability. The estate has different vine, olive and almond crops, crops that irrigated increase their productions, thus, the change will avoid the water stress that occurs in times of drought, very common in recent years. For this reason, the aim of the project is to install a submersible pump in a well of the property, pumping water to a deposit located at the highest point of the property. In addition, the water needs of each crop will be estimated, a irrigation network will be fed from the deposit by gravity. This design involves an agronomic study of irrigation needs and parameters, and then the hydraulic design of the irrigation system will be carried out, both for subunits and for the network. Finally, all those elements of filtering and impulsion required for the irrigation of the plots will be chosen and sized.

Crop water requirements are crucial for agricultural water management and redistribution. Based on meteorological and agricultural observation data, the effective precipitation (Pe), water requirements (ETc), and irrigation water requirements (Ir) in the maize growing areas of Inner Mongolia were calculated. Furthermore, climatic trends of these variables were analysed to reveal their temporal and spatial distributions. The research results are as follows: the average Pe of maize in Inner Mongolia during the entire growth period was 125.9 mm, with an increasing trend from west to east. The Pe in the middle growth period of maize was the highest and was small in the early and late growth stages. The Pe climate exhibited a negative slope with a decreasing trend. The average ETc of maize during the entire growth period was 480.6 mm. The high-value areas are mainly distributed in the Wulatzhongqi and Linhe areas. The average Ir of maize during the entire growth period was 402.9 mm, and the spatial distribution is similar to that of ETc. In each growth period, Ir showed an increasing trend. Supplemental irrigation should be added appropriately during each growth period to ensure the normal growth of maize. This study can provide an effective basis for the optimisation of irrigation and regional water conservation in the maize cultivation area of Inner Mongolia.

In recent years, with the socio-economic development, energy production and water consumption have been given more and more scientific, political and public concern. Taking Hebei Province, China as, an example, this paper performs an in-depth analysis of the energy production and water consumption. In this study, the water withdrawals and water consumption associated with energy production in Hebei Province from 2015 to 2050 were estimated by using the bottom-up Long-range Energy Alternative Planning model, which established three scenarios based on three different development models. The results show that the energy production and their associated water requirements would continue to grow at a high speed in the Reference Scenario. The energy production and their associated water withdrawals and water consumption were found to have decreased sharply in the coordinated development scenario and the strong emission reduction scenario compared to the reference scenario. It shows that industrial restructuring, energy structure optimization and the renewable energy replacement have played an important role in energy-efficient and water-efficient in coordinated development scenario and strong emission reduction scenario. Further coordinated management policy on water and energy should be fully considered to promote the sustainable management of water and energy in Hebei Province.

A novel ArcGIS toolbox that applies the Mapping Evapotranspiration with Internalized Calibration model was developed and tested in a semi-arid environment. The tool, named METRIC-GIS, facilitates the pre-processing operations and the automatic identification of potential calibration and pixels review. The energy balance components obtained from METRIC-GIS were contrasted with those from the original METRIC version (R2 = 1; RMSE = 0 W m−2 or mm day−1 for ETc) Additionally, an irrigated scheme located at southern Spain was considered for assessing Kc variability in the maize fields with METRIC-GIS. The identified spatial variability was mainly due to differences in irrigation regimes, crop management practices, and planting and harvesting dates. This information is critical for developing irrigation advisory strategies that contribute to the area sustainability. The developed tool facilitates data input introduction and reduces computational time by up to 50%, providing a more user-friendly alternative to other existing platforms that use METRIC., This research was funded by the projects RTA2011-00015-00-00 funded by the National Institute for Agricultural and Food Research and Technology (INIA) and FEDER 2014–2020 “Programa Operativo de Crecimiento Inteligente” and by the European Commission with project “SHui” (grant number: 773903). Additional funding support was provided by the Nebraska Agricultural Experiment Station and Idaho Agricultural Experiment Station.

El agua que se destina al riego de los cultivos de frutales, legumbres, hortalizas y cereales, entre otros, necesita satisfacer un patrón de calidad, por cuanto no debe contener sustancias en exceso (tóxicas) que resultan contaminantes también para el suelo. Sin embargo, en los ríos de la alta cuenca del río Juramento del valle Calchaquí salteño se encontró contaminación en aguas de riego con boro (B) en forma constante. Existen varias hipótesis sobre el origen de la presencia de B, en concentraciones que resultan tóxicas para las plantas, en las aguas de los ríos. Este trabajo intenta indagar, a través de fuentes de diferentes autores, los posibles orígenes de esa contaminación en los ríos de la cuenca alta del río Juramento, situado en el área vecina al departamento de Los Andes. Para esto se realizó un análisis cualitativo, basándose en una búsqueda exhaustiva de información secundaria y seleccionando una producción bibliográfica de distintos autores que han definido los orígenes y efectos del boro en los ríos. La presencia del boro en las aguas se puede explicar por muchos factores y existen varios motivos por los cuales llega a los ríos del valle Calchaquí salteño. Estas hipótesis pueden ser multicausales. The water that is destined to the irrigation of the crops of fruit trees, legumes, vegetables or cereals, among others, needs to satisfy a pattern of quality, not having to contain toxic substances in excess or heavy metals that are also polluting for the ground. However, in the rivers of the high basin of the Oath of the Calchaquí Valley of Salta, contamination was found constantly in irrigation waters with boron (B). There are several hypotheses about the origin of the presence of B, in concentrations that are toxic to plants, in river waters. This work tries to investigate, through sources of different authors, the possible origins in the rivers of the upper Juramento River Basin, located in the area adjacent to the department of Los Andes. For this, a qualitative analysis was carried out based on an exhaustive search for secondary school and selecting a bibliographic production of different authors that have defined the origins and effects of the presence of B. Many factors can give reasons for the B in the waters. There are several indications of the origin by which the B reaches the rivers of the Calchaquí Valley of Salta. These hypotheses can be multicausal. Centro de investigación en Economía y Prospectiva Fil: Walter, Pablo. Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA). Centro de Investigación en Economía y Prospectiva (CIEP); Argentina

[CA] L’objectiu d’aquest projecte consisteix en la implantació d’un sistema de reg localitzat i automatitzat a una finca d’aproximadament 14 hectàrees situada al terme municipal de Quatretonda (València) i propietat de l’empresa MARTÍ FRUIT, S.L. Actualment, l’explotació agrícola mostra un estat vegetatiu deteriorat amb parcel·les ermes i amb altres que es troben al final de la seua vida productiva pel que la propietat té la intenció de plantar diferents fruiters d’os (albercoquer i prunera) i, per tant, implantar el sistema de reg localitzat i automatizat adient. En primer lloc, s’ha realitzat un estudi del medi físic de la zona d’estudi per poder determinar les necessitats de reg de cadascun dels cultius així com dels paràmetres de reg. A més a més, s’han calculat i dimensionat les subunitats de reg, la xarxa de distribució i el capçal de reg, que inclou el sistema de filtrat, fertirrigació, control i automatització. Aquestes necessitats es cobriran amb l’aigua provinent d’un dipòsit proper amb un abastiment per gravetat., [EN] The aim of this project is to implant a localized and automated irrigation system to an agricultural estate of approximately 14 hectares, which is located in the municipality of Quatretonda (València) and belongs to the company MARTÍ FRUIT, S.L.Currently, the farm shows a deteriorated vegetative state with some plots that are vacant and others that are at the end of their productive life, so the property intends to plant different stone fruit trees (apricot tree and plum tree) and, therefore, implant the appropriate localized and automated irrigation system.First, a study of the physical environment of the study area has been carried out in order to determine the irrigation needs of each of the crops as well as the irrigation parameters. In addition, the irrigation subunits, the distribution network and the irrigation head, which includes the filtration, fertirrigation, control and automation system, have been calculated and sized. These needs will be covered with water from a nearby reservoir with a gravity supply.Finally, the network has been analysed with a network analysis application to verify that the proposed solution will be adequate., [ES] El objetivo de este proyecto consiste en la implantación de un sistema de riego localizado y automatizado a una finca de aproximadamente 14 hectáreas situada en el término municipal de Quatretonda (Valencia) y propiedad de la empresa MARTÍ FRUIT, S.L. Actualmente, la explotación agrícola muestra un estado vegetativo deteriorado con parcelas baldías y con otros que se encuentran al final de su vida productiva por lo que la propiedad tiene la intención de plantar diferentes frutales de hueso (albaricoquero y ciruelo) y, por tanto, implantar el sistema de riego localizado y automatizado adecuado.En primer lugar, se ha realizadoun estudio del medio físico de la zona de estudio para poder determinar las necesidades de riego de cada uno de los cultivos, así como los parámetros de riego. Además, se ha calculado y dimensionado las subunidades de riego, la red de distribución y el cabezal de riego, que incluye el sistema de filtrado, fertirrigación, control y automatización. Estas necesidades se cubrirán con el agua proveniente de un depósito cercano con un abastecimiento por gravedad. Finalmente, se ha analizado la red con una aplicación de análisis de redes para comprobar que la solución propuesta será adecuada.

La evapotranspiración potencial es de importancia en la planeación de la agricultura; por tanto, se hace necesario conocer su comportamiento. Este proyecto tuvo como objetivo, estudiar la variabilidad temporal de la evapotranspiración potencial con la finalidad de analizar sus efectos en la demanda de agua para producción agrícola en La Mojana de Sucre y Córdoba, en Colombia. Esta zona, es de gran importancia por ser la principal reserva agrícola de la región Caribe, donde la especie más cultivada es el arroz (Oryza sativa L.). Igualmente, la posible combinación de prácticas agrícolas con la variabilidad climática anómala, han venido alterando la producción agropecuaria, y consecuentemente pudiendo llegar a producir efectos negativos en la seguridad alimentaria de la zona, de allí, la importancia de su estudio. Este fue realizado a partir del análisis en el comportamiento de la temperatura (T), precipitación (P) y evapotranspiración potencial (ETp), esta última, fue estimada de acuerdo a la disponibilidad de datos que requieren los diferentes métodos de estimación. Los resultados mostraron aumentos de las tres variables, en el periodo de tiempo analizado (1983 – 2020). Adicionalmente, se analizaron los eventos oscilatorios ENSO, evidenciando que, para este mismo periodo, el fenómeno de variabilidad climática más influyente fue el de La Niña. Seguidamente, se realizaron los cálculos pertinentes para hallar los requerimientos hídricos de los cultivos más representativos de la zona de estudio, de igual manera, se realizaron balances hídricos para conocer la disponibilidad de agua que podría ser aprovechable por los cultivos anteriormente mencionados. Se concluyó la presencia de la variabilidad climática por medio de los aumentos de las variables analizadas en los 38 años de estudio, además se identificaron las épocas secas y lluviosas en el área. Finalmente, entre las recomendaciones se encuentra la implementación de medidas tecnificadas amigables con el medio ambiente, que permitan aumentos en las producciones, de los cuales depende la seguridad alimentaria de la región; y, además, ayuden en la adaptación y mitigación de las variaciones del clima que impiden un óptimo crecimiento y desarrollo de los cultivos. RESUMEN GENERAL...........................................................................................13 ABSTRACT GENERAL..........................................................................................14 1.1. INTRODUCCIÓN......................................................................................15 1.2. PLANTEAMIENTO DEL PROBLEMA.......................................................16 1.3. GENERALIDADES ...................................................................................17 1.3.1. Zona de La Mojana ............................................................................17 1.3.2. Cambio climático................................................................................19 1.3.2. Cambio climático................................................................................19 1.3.4. Fenómeno de El Niño.........................................................................21 1.3.5. Fenómeno de La Niña........................................................................21 1.3.6. Sequía................................................................................................23 1.3.7. Evapotranspiración.............................................................................23 1.3.8. Conceptos de evapotranspiración......................................................24 1.3.10. Métodos de estimación de la evapotranspiración potencial o de referencia (ETp)..............................................................................................26 1.3.11. Coeficiente del cultivo .....................................................................31 1.3.12. Disponibilidad de agua en el suelo .................................................34 1.3.13. Balance hídrico. ..............................................................................35 1.4. OBJETIVOS..............................................................................................36 1.4.1. Objetivo general .................................................................................36 1.4.2. Objetivos específicos .........................................................................36 1.5. LITERATURA CITADA .............................................................................37 CAPÍTULO II: VARIABILIDAD DE LA EVAPOTRANSPIRACIÓN POTENCIAL BAJO ESCENARIOS DE CAMBIO CLIMÁTICO Y SUS EFECTOS EN LA SEGURIDAD ALIMENTARIA DE LA MOJANA (SUCRE Y CÓRDOBA), COLOMBIA.................43 RESUMEN .........................................................................................................43 ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................44 2.1. INTRODUCCIÓN......................................................................................45 2.2. MATERIALES Y MÉTODOS.....................................................................46 2.3. RESULTADOS Y DISCUSIONES ............................................................49 2.4. CONCLUSIONES .....................................................................................59 2.5. REFERENCIAS ........................................................................................60 DISCUSIÓN GENERAL.........................................................................................63 LITERATURA CITADA ..........................................................................................66 CONCLUSIONES GENERALES ...........................................................................68 RECOMENDACIONES GENERALES ...................................................................69 ANEXOS................................................................................................................70 Pregrado Ingeniero(a) Agronómico(a) Trabajos de Investigación y/o Extensión

The results of the study devoted to assessment of accuracy and reliability of the CROPWAT 8.0 software application calculations of the evapotranspiration and crop water requirements are represented in the article.The study was based on the results of the perennial field experiments, conducted during the period from 2012 to 2017 at the irrigated lands of the South of Ukraine with different crops, namely: sweet corn, grain corn, soybean, sorghum. We assessed accuracy of the CROPWAT 8.0 software application by the comparison of the calculated values with the real ones. We determined considerable differences between the calculated crops evapotranspiration values and crops irrigation requirements and the real ones obtained in the field experiments. The difference was the most essential in case of the drip-irrigated sweet corn crop and averaged to 46.05% for evapotranspiration and 89.20% for irrigation water requirements, correspondingly. Overhead sprinkler irrigated crops are likely to be more suitable for accurate evapotranspiration prediction by using the CROPWAT 8.0. The slightest discrepancy between the calculated and actual values of the studied parameters were determined on the overhead sprinkler irrigated grain corn crops, where the differences averaged just to 15.86% for evapotranspiration and 41.63% for irrigation norm. The results of the study gave us an opportunity to conclude that CROPWAT 8.0 software application should not be used without previous calibration and adjustment of the crop coefficients for the concrete agricultural production conditions.

The objective of this work is to determine the effects of climate change on the water needs of crops in the Bounamoussa perimeter, which is one of the large irrigation systems in the North-East of Algeria in order to predict a diagnosis of its operation. This region covers an area of 16,500 ha and is specialized in vegetable production.The climatic trend of recent years in the study area is characterized by increasingly severe drought conditions that have compromised agricultural production at this perimeter. In this study, the results of the climatic parameters projected to 2050 and 2080 under the Climate Wizard program were used in the CropWat 8.0 program for estimating the future water requirements of crops, taking into account the three Scenarios (B1, A1B, A2) of greenhouse gases (GHGs). The Decision Support System for Agrotechnology Transfer (DSSAT) 4.5 program has also been used to generate future climatic parameters (temperatures and rains) to be compared with those of the climate wizard. The results obtained in 2050 and 2080 show a trend towards increasing temperatures and a fall in rainfall for all models and that the water requirements will be multiplied by 3 to 5 times the current needs. This situation will cause an imbalance in the operation of perimeter irrigation systems. Among the measures of adaptation to this situation in the first place is the change of the date of planting after calibration of the two models for all the cultures of the perimeter.

The forest trees water requirements are a growing concern in the forest sector due to the growing awareness on the impact of climate change on soil moisture regime. These requirements are still a concern in this area, especially as we search to quantify them over large scale areas and with probable climatic evolutions. The overall objective of this study is to estimate cedar water requirements in the Middle Atlas, in order to identify areas with high pedoclimatic potential for cedar and provide forest managers with new management tools. The specific objective is to search for a simple methodology to estimate cedar water requirements, through the monitoring of water regime, water storage and soil water balance, calculated from rainfall, runoff, evapotranspiration and drainage. Water requirement of different cedar age classes were evaluated in a wet year free from water and heat stress. The water requirements values of 320 mm for a young cedar forest and 460 mm for an adult cedar forest agree with estimates reported in the literature. These values are in the same order of magnitude as the Thornthwaite evapotranspiration deduced from soil water balance, and correspond to the cumulative annual rainfall recorded during the two cedar growth periods described by M'hirit in the Middle Atlas.

The forest trees water requirements are a growing concern in the forest sector due to the growing awareness on the impact of climate change on soil moisture regime. These requirements are still a concern in this area, especially as we search to quantify them over large scale areas and with probable climatic evolutions. The overall objective of this study is to estimate cedar water requirements in the Middle Atlas, in order to identify areas with high pedoclimatic potential for cedar and provide forest managers with new management tools. The specific objective is to search for a simple methodology to estimate cedar water requirements, through the monitoring of water regime, water storage and soil water balance, calculated from rainfall, runoff, evapotranspiration and drainage. Water requirement of different cedar age classes were evaluated in a wet year free from water and heat stress. The water requirements values ​​of 320 mm for a young cedar forest and 460 mm for an adult cedar forest agree with estimates reported in the literature. These values ​​are in the same order of magnitude as the Thornthwaite evapotranspiration deduced from soil water balance, and correspond to the cumulative annual rainfall recorded during the two cedar growth periods described by M’hirit in the Middle Atlas.

Giant miscanthus is a vigorously growing energy plant, popularly used for biofuels production. It is a grass with low soil and water requirements, although its productivity largely depends on complementary irrigation, especially in the first year of cultivation. The aim of the study was to assess the impact of the forecast climate changes, mainly air temperature increase, on the water needs of giant miscanthus during the growing season in 2021–2050 in the Kuyavia region (central Poland). The years 1981–2010 as the reference period were applied. The meteorological data was based on the regional climate change model RM5.1 with boundary conditions from the global ARPEGE model for the SRES A1B emission scenario. Crop evapotranspiration, calculated using the Penman-Monteith method and crop coefficients, was assumed as a measure of water needs. The study results showed that in view of the expected temperature changes, in the forecast period 2021–2050, the giant miscanthus water needs will increase by 10%. The highest monthly increase may occur in August (16%) and in September (23%). In the near future, the increase in water needs of giant miscanthus will necessitate the use of supplementary irrigation. Hence the results of this study may contribute to increasing the efficiency of water use, and thus to the rational management of irrigation treatments and plant energy resources in the Kuyavia region.

Irrigated agriculture has emerged as a necessary technology to achieve greater productivity, mainly by supplying the water requirements of agricultural crops in critical periods, especially for those regions where natural rainfall is insufficient to meet these requirements. The daily water consumption of crops is strongly influenced by local weather conditions, which justifies the need for regionalized studies of the parameters influencing the water depth to be applied. The crop coefficient (Kc) is perhaps the most important parameter because it interferes directly with the crop water requirements. This index must be determined for each region, thus avoiding the use of reference values meant for other climatic conditions, causing loss of productivity The present study aimed to estimate the local crop coefficients for corn (Zea mays L.) for the climatic conditions of the State of Maranhao, aiming at the rational use of water in agriculture. The method, which allowed obtaining the local values of Kc for different phases of the crop cycle, used climatic data from 12 weather stations (INMET) and mathematical equations proposed by Albuquerque et al. (2001). It estimated the mean and final Kc values. The local values of Kc obtained for corn ranged from 0.73 to 0.77, 1.00 to 1.31, and 0.24 to 0.45 for initial, intermediate, and final phases, respectively.

Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute (IWMI) Washington, DC, USA: USAID

WOS: 000571741400004 PubMed ID: 32902699 In recent years, it has been difficult to establish a supply-demand balance between urban growth, increasing population, and existing water resources in many countries. In this study, the Bodrum Peninsula, which is an important tourism center for Turkey, was examined in terms of the relationship between the urban growth of the peninsula, population projections, the need for drinking and potable water, and the availability of the existing water resources. Using the Geographic Information System, it has been determined that the urban growth of the peninsula increased by 11.36% between 1985 and 2010. Urban growth is mostly concentrated in the coastal areas where 2 houses are densely built. The population is expected to increase approximately six times between 2010 and 2060. The amount of drinking and potable water required according to the population projection is 12.38, 26.50, 69.12, and 109.50 hm(3)/year for 2010, 2030, 2050, and 2060 respectively. The existing water resources of the peninsula will be able to meet the requirements until 2030. In order to meet the water needs of the peninsula until 2055, the Bozalan and Gokceler dams located nearby as well as the Namnam dam located at mid-range to the peninsular should be built. It is not possible to meet the water needs of the peninsula in 2060 with just the near and medium distance water resources. However, by supplying water from the Akkopru dam located at a further distance, it is possible that 2060 water needs can be met.

[ES] El objetivo de este trabajo final de grado es el diseño de una nave agrícola para almacenaje de maquinaria y almendra, y del sistema de regadío en una finca destinada a la producción de almendra en el término municipal de Camporrobles (Valencia). La finca consta de tres parcelas cuya superficie es aproximadamente de 8,7 ha. El trabajo recogerá el diseño y cálculo de un almacén que albergará el cabezal de riego, maquinaria agrícola utilizada en la explotación, y espacio destinado a secado natural y almacenamiento temporal de la almendra recolectada. Además, también recogerá la estimación de las necesidades hídricas de la especie, de acuerdo a la climatología de la zona y las características de la especie. Por lo que se diseñará un sistema de riego localizado para abastecer estas necesidades, alimentado desde un hidrante perteneciente a la comunidad de regantes Las Cuevas De Utiel (Utiel)., [EN] The objective of this Bachelor s thesis is the design of an agricultural building to store agricultural machinery and almond harvest, and irrigation system design in a farm dedicated to the production of almonds in the municipality of Camporrobles (Valencia). The farm consists of three plots of approximately 8, 7 hectares. The project will include the design and calculation of a warehouse that will house the head of irrigation, agricultural machinery used in the plantation, and space dedicated for natural drying and temporary storage of the almond harvested. In addition, it will also collect the estimate of the water needs of the crop, according to the climatology of the area and the individual characteristics of the crop. Therefore, a localized irrigation system will be designed to supply these needs, fed from a hydrant belonging to the irrigation community Las Cuevas De Utiel (Utiel)., [CA] L’objectiu d'aquest treball de fi de grau és el disseny d'una nau agrícola per a l’emmagatzematge de maquinària i d'ametlla i del sistema de regadiu en una finca destinada a la producció d'ametlla en el terme municipal de Camporrobles (València). La finca consta de tres parcel·les on la superfície és aproximadament de 8,7 ha. El treball recollirà el disseny i càlcul d'un magatzem que conté el capçal de reg, maquinària agrícola utilitzada en l'explotació, i espai destinat a assecat natural i emmagatzematge temporal de l'ametlla recol·lectada. A més, també recollirà l'estimació de les necessitats hídriques de l'espècie, d'acord a la climatologia de la zona i a les característiques de l'espècie. Per tant, es dissenyarà un sistema de reg localitzat per proveir aquestes necessitats, alimentat des d'un hidrant que pertany a la comunitat de regants Las Cuevas D'Utiel (Utiel).

[ES] El objetivo del presente proyecto consiste en la sustitución del sistema de riego tradicional por gravedad, por un sistema de riego localizado automatizado y con una instalación de bombeo fotovoltaico en una finca destinada a la producción de cítricos en el término municipal de Sagunto (Valencia). Para ello, disponemos de una única parcela propiedad de la empresa Antonio LLusar y C.I.A, cuyas dimensiones son aproximadamente de 13 hectáreas. Actualmente, la explotación agrícola implantada muestra un estado vegetativo muy deteriorado, ya que se encuentra al final de su vida productiva. Además, de estar distribuida en diferentes abancalamientos, lo que dificulta y encarece el desempeño de las labores de cultivo. Por esos motivos, además de por el ahorro hídrico y energético que puede representar este tipo de instalaciones, se ha planteado diseñar un sistema de riego localizado abastecido por energía renovable. De esta forma, el proyecto albergará un estudio del cultivo con sus condiciones de implantación y las labores que deben llevarse a cabo. Asimismo, se estimarán las necesidades hídricas de la especie de acuerdo con la climatología de la zona y las características de la propia especie. Para abastecer estas necesidades de riego del cultivo, la empresa tiene un pozo propio, por lo que se tendrá que estudiar si el sistema de bombeo que existe actualmente es suficiente para este abastecimiento. En caso contrario, se propondrá la instalación de un nuevo sistema de bombeo, con capacidad para el abastecimiento correcto. Para el sistema de bombeo, se dimensionará una instalación fotovoltaica que sea capaz de suministrar la energía necesaria para el bombeo. Además, la plantación de cítricos posee un pequeño almacén, en el cual se situará el sistema de bombeo, el sistema de fertiirrigación, los depósitos de fertilizantes y los productos fitosanitarios. También dispone de una pequeña masía, con espacio suficiente para poder almacenar temporalmente maquinaria agrícola, cajas o pallets listos para la recolección, en momentos puntuales., [EN] The purpose of the present project consists in the substitution of the traditional irrigation system by gravity, by an automatic localized irrigation system with a photovoltaic pumping installation in a farm holding dedicated to the production of citrus fruits in the municipal term of Sagunto (Valencia). For this, we have a single farm holding owned by the company ANTONIO LLUSAR and C.I.A, whose dimensions are approximately 13 hectares. Currently, the implanted agricultural exploitation shows a very deteriorated vegetative state, since it is at the end of its productive life. In addition, to be distributed in different terraces, which makes difficult and expensive the performance of the work of cultivation. For these reasons, and due to lack water, which has become more and more acute, it has decided to adopt a system capable of optimizing the available water resources. The project will house a study of the crop with its conditions of implementation and the tasks that must be carried out. Likewise, the water needs of the species will be estimated according to the climatology of the area and the characteristics of the species itself. To supply these crop irrigation needs, the company has its own well, so it will be necessary to study whether the pumping system that currently exists is sufficient for this supply. Otherwise, it will be proposed the installation of a new pumping system, with capacity for the correct supply. For the pumping system, a photovoltaic installation capable of supplying the energy needed for pumping will be sized and installed. In addition, the citrus plantation has a small warehouse, which will house the pumping system, the fertirrigation system, the fertilizer tanks and the phytosanitary products. It also has a small farmhouse, with enough space to temporarily store agricultural machinery, boxes or pallets ready for collection, at specific times.

El trabajo de investigación tuvo como objetivo obtener los coeficientes de riego del césped americano, se evaluaron 1,0; 0,8; 0,6 y 0,4 de la evapotranspiración potencial para cada estación durante un año. Las variables climáticas fueron monitoreadas por una estación automática y se utilizó el riego por goteo subterráneo, no se presentó intrusión de las raíces en los laterales de riego. Para el monitoreo de la distribución de humedad se utilizaron sensores TDR, obteniéndose coeficientes de uniformidad entre el 90 a 92 %. El monitoreo de la humedad en el tiempo y el estado energético se realizó mediante sensores FDR y curvas pF. La calidad visual fue evaluada mediante el color, uniformidad y cobertura, esta última apoyada en imágenes digitales. Se ensayaron diferentes coeficientes de riego para cada estación. Finalmente se seleccionaron los coeficientes que permitieron mantener al césped con bajo requerimiento de agua y mantenimiento, así como una buena calidad visual, aplicando el Proceso de Análisis Jerárquico. Los coeficientes seleccionados fueron: 0,8; 0,8; 0,4 y 0,6 de la ETo para la verano, otoño, invierno y primavera respectivamente, obteniendo con ellos una adecuada calidad visual y un ahorro del volumen agua del 31%. The research work had the objective to obtain the irrigation coefficients of Saint Augustine turfgrass, were evaluated 1.0; 0.8; 0.6 and 0.4 of the potential evapotranspiration for each season during the year. Climatic variables were monitored by an automatic station and sub-surface drip irrigation was used, no intrusion of the roots into the irrigation hoses and drips. To monitor the moisture distribution, TDR sensors were used, a uniformity coefficient between 90 and 92% was obtained. Moisture monitoring during the time and energy status were used FDR sensors and pF curves. Visual quality was evaluated through color, uniformity and coverage, the last one supported by digital imag es. Different irrigation coefficients were presented for each season. Finally, the coefficients that allowed keeping the turfgrass with low water requirement and maintenance were selected, as well as a good visual quality by applying the Hierarchical Analysis Process, the coefficients selected were: 0.8; 0.8; 0.4 and 0.6 of the ETo for the summer, autumn, winter and spring respectively, obtaining an adequate visual quality and a water volume saving of 31%.

En Argentina la producción de tabaco Virginia se localiza en Jujuy y Salta, donde la reposición de agua alcultivo se realiza principalmente con riego gravitacional. La posibilidad de regar con mayor precisión y la poca sensibilidad del cultivo a un estrés moderado permite suponer que es factible regar el tabaco de manera deficitaria. Por lo que, el objetivo de este trabajo fue evaluar la respuesta de la materia seca de hoja de tabaco y sus componentes al riego deficitario de alta frecuencia durante la fase previa a las precipitaciones en el Valle de Lerma (Cerrillos, Salta) para dos fechas de trasplante, determinando, además, atributos relacionados con la eficiencia en el uso de la radiación y del agua. El estudio se realizó en la EEA del INTA Salta durante tres ciclos agrícolas (2013/14, 2015/16 y 2016/17). Se trabajó con tabaco Virginia variedad K394. Los tratamientos consistieron en la combinación de dos factores, momento de trasplante (Te: temprano y Ta: tardío) y necesidad de riego (NR) con niveles de reposición del 50 y 100%. En diferentes momentos se determinó materia seca de hoja (MSh), materia seca aérea total (hoja+tallo) (MSa) e índice de área foliar (IAF) y masa foliar específica (MFE). En 2015/16 y 2016/17 se determinó filocrono, radiación interceptada acumulada por el cultivo (Rint) y eficiencia de uso de radiación (EUR). Se calculó la eficiencia de uso del agua considerando el agua de riego (EUAr) y el agua aportada por las precipitaciones y el riego (EUApr) a cosecha. La MSh a cosecha fue menor en 2013/14 que en los otros dos ciclos agrícolas, pero fue similar para las dos fechas de trasplante en cada ciclo agrícola. Si bien Te recibió entre 300 y 400 MJ de radiación incidente más que Ta, estos solo se corresponden con un 3% extra de Rint acumulada durante el ciclo agrícola. Por lo tanto, la menor MSh en 2013/14 se explicó por el menor IAF. En 2013/14 y 2016/17 el IAF y la MFE fueron similares entre fechas de trasplante, mientras que en 2015/16 el menor IAF a cosecha de Te generó hojas con mayor MFE. La EUR a cosecha varió entre los 0,46 y 0,48 g/MJ sin diferenciarse entre fechas de trasplante. En 2015/16 y 2016/17, donde el fertilizante utilizado fue líquido, reponer el 50% de la NR no penalizó la MSh y el IAF, lo que sí ocurrió en 2013/14 (donde se utilizó fertilizante sólido). La EUApr fue menor en 2013/14 que en los otros ciclos agrícolas; siempre fue mayor en Ta y solo mayor en 50% de NR en 2015/16, mientras que la EUAr fue en todos los ciclos agrícolas mayor con la combinación de Ta y 50% de NR. Se concluye que el riego deficitario controlado puede ser una alternativa viable para el cultivo de tabaco en el Valle de Lerma, sin embargo, deberían profundizarse estudios donde se considere la calidad de hoja obtenida. The production of tobacco Virginia in Argentina is located at Jujuy and Salta where crop irrigation is mainly done by a gravity system. The possibility of using precision irrigation methods and the low sensitivity of the crop to moderate water stress allow assuming that it is feasible to irrigate tobacco with a deficit strategy. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of high frequency deficit irrigation during the period that precede summer precipitation at the Valle de Lerma (Cerrillos, Salta) on tobacco leaf dry matter and its main component for two transplant dates. Attributes related to water and radiation use efficiencies were also determined. The study was conducted during three growing cycles (2013/14, 2015/16 y 2016/17) at INTA EEA-Salta with the tobacco Virginia variety K394. Treatments consisted of the combination of two transplant dates (early, Te; late, Ta) and two level of irrigation requirement (NR): 100 and 50% of NR. Leaf dry matter (MSh), total dry matter (leaf+stem), leaf area index (IAF) and specific foliar mass (MFE) were determined at different moments. Phyllochron, crop accumulated intercepted radiation (Rint) and radiation use efficiency (EUR) were determined in 2015/16 and 2016/17. Water use efficiency was calculated for the 20-24 leaf and harvest samplings considering the irrigation water (EUAr) and the water contributed by the rainfall and irrigation (EUApr). MSh at harvest was lower in 2013/14 than in the other growing cycles, but was similar for the two transplant dates in each growing cycle. Although Te received more incident radiation (300-400 MJ) than Ta, this only represented an extra 3% of Rint during the growing cycle. Therefore, the lowest MSh in 2013/14 was explained by the lowest IAF. IAF and MFE were similar between transplant dates in 2013/14 and 2016/17, whereas for the 2015/16 growing cycle the lower IAF at harvest found for Te generated leaves with higher MFE. There were not differences between transplant date for EUR at harvest, ranging from 0,46 to 0,48 g/MJ. Replacement of 50% of NR did not penalize MSh and IAF during the 2015/16 and 2016/17 growing cycles (when the fertilized used was liquid), whereas it decreased MSh and IAF in 2013/14 (when liquid fertilizer was used). EUApr was lower in 2013/14 than in the other growing cycles. EUApr was always higher for Ta than Te, and for 50% of NR only in 2015/16. During the three growing cycles the lowest EUAr was found with the combination of Ta and 50% of NR. The controlled deficit irrigation is an alternative for tobacco production in Valle de Lerma; however, studies considering leaf quality should be considering. Fil: Diez, Josefina. Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria. Centro Regional Salta-Jujuy. Estación Experimental Agropecuaria Salta; Argentina. Universidad Nacional de Salta; Argentina Fil: Acreche, Martin Moises. Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria. Centro Regional Salta-Jujuy. Estación Experimental Agropecuaria Salta; Argentina. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Salta; Argentina

The rice–wheat cropping system is the main food bowl in Asia, feeding billions across the globe. However, the productivity and long-term sustainability of this system are threatened by stagnant crop yields and greenhouse gas emissions from flooded rice production. The negative environmental consequences of excessive nitrogen fertilizer use are further exacerbating the situation, along with the high labor and water requirements of transplanted rice. Residue burning in rice has also severe environmental concerns. Under these circumstances, many farmers in South Asia have shifted from transplanted rice to direct-seeded rice and reported water and labor savings and reduced methane emissions. There is a need for opting the precision agriculture techniques for the sustainable management of nutrients. Allelopathic crops could be useful in the rotation for weed management, the major yield-reducing factor in direct-seeded rice. Legume incorporation might be a viable option for improving soil health. As governments in South Asia have imposed a strict ban on the burning of rice residues, the use of rice-specific harvesters might be a pragmatic option to manage rice residues with yield and premium advantage. However, the soil/climatic conditions and farmer socio-economic conditions must be considered while promoting these technologies in rice-wheat system in South Asia.

Center pivor systems are widely used to suppress the irrigation needs of agricultural fields. In this article, we propose an autonomous to improve the low efficiency of this method of irrigation, developing a system based on the water requirement of the plantation, through field data (local temperature, local wind, soil moisture and precipitation forecast) and soil evapotranspiration calculation. The stored information will allow to calculatem the real evapotranspiration, not being necessary to restrict to lysometric measures. Accordingly, it is possible to schedule the irrigation for the period in which it has the lowest cost, considering the energy produced locally and the price of energy bought in the main market. Irrigation must be carried out within the time interval in which the plantation does not reach the wilding point, so it will be carried out at the time of the lowest cost.

Orientador: Jonas Teixeira Nery Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Geociências Resumo: O presente trabalho traz como foco primordial de análise a variabilidade da precipitação na bacia hidrográfica do rio Paraná, uma extensa área do território brasileiro, com aproximadamente 1,1 milhões de quilômetros quadrados e significativa diversidade climática, uma vez que contempla três regiões distintas do País: Centro-Oeste, Sudeste e Sul. Procurou-se, ao longo do desenvolvimento do estudo, evidenciar o clima como um parâmetro físico e insumo natural imprescindível à organização do espaço e às funcionalidades do território. A variabilidade da precipitação na referida área de estudo foi estimada para o período de 1970 a 2014, através de 47 postos pluviométricos com dados diários de precipitação em ponto de grade. Os dados em ponto de grade estão organizados no formato NetCDF, disponíveis para a América do Sul, combinados de forma simples com resolução espacial de 1° e 2,5° de longitude e latitude. A variabilidade da precipitação foi estimada a partir de parâmetros estatísticos básicos, como média, desvio padrão e coeficiente de variação e outros complementares, como o cálculo de anomalias, cálculo e análise de tendências da precipitação e estimativas trimestrais da precipitação diária na área de estudo. Índices de quantificação diária e mensal da precipitação foram aplicados à Climatologia e utilizados na estimativa da variabilidade: o índice de concentração, o índice de precipitação concentrada e o índice padronizado de precipitação. As metodologias empregadas na estimativa e o arcabouço teórico estruturado, possibilitaram uma análise e interpretação precisas sobre a variabilidade, distribuição e concentração da precipitação na bacia hidrográfica do rio Paraná, evidenciando diferenças importantes na concentração das chuvas: no setor norte da bacia as chuvas estão mensalmente concentradas e seguem um padrão de distribuição que obedece à sazonalidade. Os fenômenos meteorológicos de maior incidência são a Zona de Convergência Intertropical e a Frente Polar Atlântica, atuando em consonância com a massa Tropical atlântica, no inverno e com a massa Tropical continental e massa Equatorial continental, no verão; no extremo sul, as chuvas são mais uniformes e bem distribuídas ao longo do ano, com elevada concentração diária, que pode esconder extremos de precipitação e acarretar situações de desastres, como inundações e deslizamentos de terra. O principal fenômeno meteorológico atuante nessa área da bacia é o El Niño-Oscilação Sul, responsável pelas elevadas anomalias positivas de precipitação encontradas. Além do El Niño, o regime de chuvas no sul da bacia do Paraná está condicionado, no verão, pela incidência da massa Tropical atlântica e massa Tropical continental; no inverno, pela massa Polar atlântica. O setor mais central da bacia se consubstanciou como uma região de transição, que sofre influência das massas de ar e dos sistemas sinóticos incidentes nas áreas circundantes, como a Frente Polar Atlântica, a massa Polar atlântica e massa Tropical atlântica. Essa área apresentou, em todas as análises, precipitação dentro da "normal" climatológica esperada, com chuvas distribuídas de acordo com as estações do ano, isto é, inverno frio e seco e verão quente e úmido. O trimestre dezembro, janeiro e fevereiro foi o que concentrou mais dias com chuvas e as maiores médias de precipitação pluvial diária, seguido pelo trimestre setembro, outubro, novembro. Em junho, julho e agosto, as médias de precipitação pluvial diária foram mais baixas e os dias com chuva quase inexistentes. A estimativa da variabilidade da precipitação na bacia hidrográfica do rio Paraná foi eficiente e evidenciou a importância do regime das chuvas como um parâmetro físico necessário na organização do espaço, uma vez que interfere, direta ou indiretamente na viabilidade do desenvolvimento das atividades humanas e nos modos como os indivíduos organizam sua própria vida Abstract: The present work focuses on rainfall variability in the Paraná river basin, an extensive area of Brazilian territory, with approximately 1.1 million square kilometers and significant climatic diversity, since it covers three distinct regions of the Country: Central-West, Southeast and South. During the development of the study, it was sought to show the climate as a physical parameter and natural input essential to the organization of the space and to the functionalities of the territory. The variability of precipitation in this study area was estimated for the period from 1970 to 2014, through 47 pluviometry stations with daily precipitation data in grid point. The grid point data is organized in NetCDF format, available for South America, simply combined with spatial resolution of 1 ° and 2.5 ° longitude and latitude. Precipitation variability was estimated from basic statistical parameters, such as mean, standard deviation and coefficient of variation, and other complementary variables, such as calculation of anomalies, calculation and analysis of precipitation trends, and quarterly estimates of daily precipitation in the study area. Daily and monthly precipitation indices were applied to Climatology and used to estimate the variability: the concentration index, the concentrated precipitation index and the standardized precipitation index. The methodologies used in the estimation and the structured theoretical framework allowed a precise analysis and interpretation on the variability, distribution and concentration of precipitation in the Paraná river basin, evidencing important differences in rainfall concentration: in the northern sector of the basin rainfall is monthly concentrated and follow a distribution pattern that obeys seasonality. The most frequent meteorological phenomena are the Intertropical Convergence Zone and the Atlantic Polar Front, acting in consonance with the tropical Atlantic mass, in the winter and with the Continental tropical mass and continental Equatorial mass, in the summer; in the extreme south, rainfall is more uniform and well distributed throughout the year, with a high daily concentration, which can hide extremes of precipitation and lead to disasters such as floods and landslides. The main meteorological phenomenon in this area of the basin is the El Niño-Southern Oscillation, responsible for the high positive precipitation anomalies found. In addition to El Niño, the rainfall regime in the south of the Paraná basin is conditioned in summer by the incidence of Atlantic tropical mass and continental tropical mass; in winter, by the Atlantic polar mass. The most central sector of the basin became a transition region, influenced by air masses and synoptic systems in the surrounding areas, such as the Atlantic Polar Front, the Atlantic Polar Mass and the Atlantic Tropical Mass. This area presented, in all analyzes, precipitation within the expected "normal" climatological, with rains distributed according to the seasons, cold and dry winter and hot and humid summer. The December, January and February quarter were the one that concentrated the rainiest days and the highest averages of daily rainfall, followed by the September, October, November quarter. In June, July and August, average daily rainfall was lower and rainy days were almost non-existent. The estimation of precipitation variability in the Paraná river basin was efficient and evidenced the importance of the rainfall regime as a necessary physical parameter in the organization of space, since it interferes, directly or indirectly, in the viability of the development of human activities and in the modes how individuals organize their own lives Doutorado Análise Ambiental e Dinâmica Territorial Doutora em Geografia