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Undergraduate student participation in general education classes constitutes a point of struggle for many educators, especially when it comes to lessons centered around systems of oppression like racism, sexism, or heterosexism. Using both constructivism and counter storytelling as theoretical frameworks, this multi-method phenomenological case study explored the experiences of undergraduate honors students in a semester long general education literature class. The purpose of this study was to 1) explore how comics can be used as a pedagogical tool in higher education classrooms to facilitate discussion of systems of oppression, 2) assess the ways in which students interacted with comics, and 3) investigate what role comics played in engagement and development of critical thinking and analysis skills. Primary data collection involved document review of student coursework, deployment of three surveys, and semi-structured interviews. Data analysis employed horizontalization, coding, frequency distribution, and content analysis of coursework. The findings of this study provide a unique glimpse into how comics impact undergraduate engagement and participation, as well as their identification of and discussion about systemic oppression. This research showcases the potential of comics as a versatile and inclusive medium with which to discuss social and cultural difference in college classrooms. With an ever more politicized climate in higher education, institutions may want to create opportunities for students to have hard conversations in general education courses. Using comics as primary texts can foster engagement and build community, promote knowledge construction and meaning making, develop and refine intellectual skills, and encourage student interaction with class texts.

The purpose of this phenomenological study was to describe the lived experiences of K-12 teachers addressing the unique needs of Black and marginalized twice-exceptional students in the United States. At this stage in the research, Black and marginalized twice-exceptional (2e) students are minority students that are gifted students that have a disability. The theory guiding this study was the teacher expectancy theory. This study was a transcendental phenomenological study. The study took place in the United States. Pseudonyms were used to protect the identities of the participants. The central research question asked, what are the lived experiences of teachers addressing the unique needs of Black and marginalized 2e students? Lesson plans, individual interviews, and observations were used to collect data. These data collections helped me understand the teachers’ lived experiences. The data was analyzed by coding to find the emerging themes from the participant’s responses. Also, triangulation and data reduction were used to analyze the data. The research revealed that teachers were unsure of how to support 2e students, lacked training and support, remained optimistic, and obstacles to success. It was recommended for future studies that researchers describe the lived experiences of Native American 2e students and female 2e students, that each state creates policies to support 2e students, and administration becomes trained in how to support 2e students so they could train their teachers.

Applied behavior analysis (ABA) is defined by the Behavior Analyst Certification Board (BACB) as “the science of behavior, with a history extending back to the early 20th century. Its main philosophy is behaviorism that is based on the premise of attempting to improve the human condition through changing of the behavior (e.g., education, behavioral health treatment) that would be most effective with the behavior as the primary focus of treatment” (BACB, 2022). ABA is commonly offered in clinics, schools, and homes. Previous systematic reviews and metaanalyses have been conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of ABA in homes and clinics. However, no/few systematic reviews exist to evaluate the effectiveness of ABA provided in schools. It is important to analyze the effects of school-based ABA to ensure the effectiveness of implementation are the same as what it would be if it were in a clinic. Therefore, the purpose of the current investigation is to systematically review studies describing the use of ABA in school settings to evaluate their effectiveness and other characteristics. Results focused on differences in the effectiveness and clients receiving treatment between settings. The discussion focused on ways to improve implementation of ABA in school districts.

Prior research has demonstrated the efficacy of general education coursework among American college students (Ball, 2012; Rosenzweig, 2009). Traditional models of general education programs are predicated on the understanding that exposure to a broad set of educational experiences creates well-rounded graduates (Roche, 2010). However, emerging research shows the importance of integrative learning experiences including general education programs (Lowenstein, 2015). These programs are just now at the initial stages of development and implementation at colleges and universities making it possible to study direct effects on student learning. What remains, however, is limited ways to measure such learning in emerging programs. One large, research university in a mid-Atlantic state provides opportunity to construct a measure of integrated learning. This study addressed the salient literature on general education in higher education today and then used quantitative methods and qualitative methods to investigate an empirically based measure of integrative learning. Findings revealed the continuous process of integrative learning from disciplinary knowledge to application to real world and established an initial framework for assessing students learning outcomes of integration. Finally, the research provided implications for researchers and practitioners to utilize the instrument and extend it to a wider range of students and academic programs.

Cumulatively, this dissertation has been a study of the evolution of information literacy and academic librarians as instructors as hastened by the advent and proliferation of information technology. This study traces the history and evolution of information literacy from its inception up to the publication of the Framework for Information Literacy for Higher Education. For the bulk of the 20th century, academic libraries have principally served as repositories of curated physical collections used to support the research, information, and recreational needs of students, disciplinary faculty, staff, and their institution’s curricula. Within that era, information literacy instruction directly reflected a curated-physical-collection orientation; and as a result, it was narrow, highly pragmatic, mostly skills-based, and far from theoretical. This study explores how the Information Literacy Competency Standards for Higher Education and the Framework for Information Literacy for Higher Education impacted the disciplinary literature outside of library and information science as a way of gauging The Standards and The Framework’s broader impact on higher education. This study uses Boleman and Deal’s theoretical framework to explain the construction, revision, and dynamics of general education curricula. Collectively, these chapters represent a progression of thoughts and questions about information literacy, its place within higher education, and the instructional role of academic librarians that I have pondered over the entirety of my professional career.

This phenomenological qualitative study explored the perceptions and experiences of a group of U.S. public schools, kindergarten through fifth grade teachers, certified in general education with experience teaching inclusion--a federally mandated practice requiring schools to educate students both with and without disabilities in the same classroom. Much of the literature surrounding inclusion focuses on the perceived benefits of the program and children with disabilities' legal rights. The literature has a limited number of references describing the perceptions and experiences of teachers who are required to provide the educational services necessary for inclusion in the classroom. In this study, 35 participants answered survey questions about inclusion. Ten of the respondents additionally participated in follow-up interviews, providing nearly ten hours of dialogue and sharing narrative accounts of perceptions and experiences. The finding indicated that all participants verbally expressed support for the concept of inclusive education. However, with deeper probing, no participant relayed a positive personal account from teaching inclusion, yet, every participant identified multiple problems and/or experiences.

The purpose of this transcendental phenomenological study was to describe general education teachers’ lived experiences of consultative interactions with special education team members in an urban school in New England. Information regarding desired outcomes of consultation as well as general education teacher-identified outcomes was explored. The theory that guided this study was the collaboration theory identified by Lee Vygotsky, which details the benefit of collaboration with others to gain knowledge of a task or process using a partnership to support a deeper understanding. A sample of 10 general education teachers provided their perspectives on consultation with special education team members. This phenomenon was examined through interviews, journal entries, and document analysis of consultation notes and meeting minutes. A transcendental phenomenological methodology was utilized to understand and synthesize the data describing teachers’ lived experiences of consultative interactions with special education team members. The results of this study indicated the general education teachers value consultation and collaboration with special education team members. The teachers also identified factors that strengthen consultation and present barriers to effective consultation. Finally, general education teachers provided ideas for improvement of consultation and collaboration within their school.

Co-teaching research has mainly focused on the perspective of the co-teaching pair,which primarily consists of a general education teacher and special education teacher orintervention specialist. The relationship between the co-teaching pair not only affectspractice but has the ability to potentially affect students' academic performance as well associal functioning for those in their classroom. To understand the perspectives of studentswith and without Individualized Education Plans (IEPs) in the inclusive classroom withco-teachers, researchers surveyed, observed, and interviewed high school students insecondary education algebra I and II classrooms with a general education mathematicsteacher and intervention specialist.

Inclusive education is when all students, regardless of any challenge or neurological differences, are in the general education classroom and receive high-quality instruction, interventions, and support to succeed in the core curriculum. With 62.5% of students receiving most, if not all, special education services in the general education classroom (Snyder et al., 2019), general and special education teachers must work together to meet their students' needs. The case study investigated the collaborative networks of eight general and special education teachers and learned how general and special education teachers collaborate to support inclusion at a public middle school. Through interviews, teachers mapped and described their ego-networks and discussed how they collaborate to support students with special needs in their classrooms. The study identified a network dense with special educators which provided multiple sources of accessible education experience and expertise. Proximity and structured partnerships were found to be the main drivers for network development. Working together, teachers differentiated and scaffolded the curriculum and provided an individualized education. The study provides further understanding of collaborative networks within a school site and situates this knowledge within the lens of educational leadership through distributed leadership practices and supports equitable educational practices that celebrate and honor neurodiversity within classrooms.

The effects of the Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) pandemic continue to be unveiled. The pressures and stipulations for inclusion can cause great stress for teachers and administrators to attempt ways to create a least restrictive environment (LRE) for students with Individualized Education Programs (IEPs), while maintaining rigor and safety for all students in the midst of changing policy and practice. Self-efficacy allows individuals to measure their beliefs in the ability to complete a task. The pandemic led to a need of examining students’ self-efficacy within the inclusive environment. The purpose of the study was to examine the differences in academic self-efficacy scores based on students’ classification as a student with and without a documented disability and gender among middle school students in an inclusive classroom. The research was conducted in this study through a casual comparative study to determine students’ self-efficacy toward inclusion in in-person and remote classrooms. This study examined 222 students, while using 2 two-way analyses of variance in disability qualification, gender, and learning format. The instrument of measurement is the Patterns of Adaptive Learning Scales (PALS) created by Midgley et al. (2000) used to measure students’ self-efficacy at the end of the 2020-2021 school year finding that having a documented disability had no significance on academic self-efficacy. Gender and learning format (in-person compared to virtual) did not have significant effect size within this study. There has been extensive research on the effects of inclusion; however, the measured self-efficacy of students throughout the pandemic experience needs continued development. Results indicate further research and intervention to improve academic self-efficacy of students.

Within teacher education programs, the preparation of general and special educators has often been separated due to differences in the skills each is expected to master (Pugach, Blanton, & Boveda, 2014). With the mandate of inclusion in the IDEA (20 U.S.C. § 1412(a)(5)(A)), as well as the increasing implementation of inclusive practices in schools, there has been a desire to shift towards greater integration of general and special education teachers, both in training and in service (Pugach, et al., 2014). This study examines responses to a collaborative project completed by pre-service general and special education elementary teachers. Pre-service teachers took a course together on inclusion and worked cooperatively to implement an intervention and complete progress monitoring for focal students. The course and implementation assignment were designed to support teacher collaboration. Coding data from the pre-service teacher’s implementation assignment and reported student outcomes and individual interviews show the positive impact of the collaborative experience on pre-service teachers ability to align interventions with student needs as well as pre-service teachers’ satisfaction with collaboration and desire to engage in it in the future.

Closing the gap between academic achievement of the highest and lowest performing students has been a target of state and federal legislation for almost two decades. Currently, public school leaders and teachers operate in a system in which student achievement data are tied to the performance evaluations of districts, schools, teachers, and principals. This high-stakes environment has engendered a climate in public education in which leaders and teachers must collaborate to deliver effective instruction or suffer ramifications for their failure to do so.Because relational trust supports effective collaboration between teachers, leaders of school reform should attend to relational trust to support reform efforts. But building relational trust during times of school reform may be difficult because a high stakes environment may not be conducive to collaboration. Therefore, school leaders may be faced with a paradox: trust building may jeopardized by the reform efforts for which trust is needed. The purpose of this study was to explore collaboration among teachers during school reform. Specifically, this study investigated collaboration between general and special educators, teachers’ perceptions of leader support for collaboration, and leaders’ perceptions of teacher collaboration. Participants in this study included 35 teachers and nine leaders from elementary, middle, and high schools in one school district. Results indicated that general and special educators often struggled to build relational trust. General and special educators who experienced trusting relationships, however, promoted symmetry between their roles and developed norms to support collaboration. Further, leader and teacher participants in this study both supported the notion that a trust paradox exists, suggesting that accountability pressures complicate trust building among colleagues. Participants identified several leader behaviors that were supportive of collaborative relationships among teachers as well as leader behaviors that did not support trust building. Findings from this study may offer guidance for leaders who want to support teacher collaboration to improve student achievement.

The purpose of this mixed methods study was to describe how pre-service general and special education teachers self-reported knowledge of twice exceptionality (2e) as well as how they made referral decision after reading a vignette about a student presenting twice exceptional characteristics. Survey and interview data analysis indicate a lack of knowledge in respect to four topics: IDEA, IEP, Identification and Referral, and Characteristics. With a low response rate of 5.93%, generalization of data is not appropriate. Despite the low response rate, it is noteworthy that study participants did report lack of 2e knowledge in all four topic areas, reported little to no content about 2e within their undergraduate programs, and also reported little to no experiences with 2e learners.

The co-teaching relationship is the foundational structure upon which a co-taught classroom is built. Co-teaching is often defined as a general education teacher and a special education teacher teaching a group of heterogeneous students together. Born from inclusion, co-teaching attempts to reach all learners. With this service delivery model comes challenges and a large learning curve, so a strong foundation is imperative. Literature and educational scholars have expressed that the foundation of co-teaching is the relationship between teachers. Authors in the literature have stressed the importance of the relationship however, little to no research exists studying the dynamics of the co-teaching partnership. Through a phenomenological approach, this study sought to understand the dynamics of the co-teaching partnership between a general education teacher and a special education teacher. Framed with collaborative professionalism and a thorough examination of the working partnership, this study was able to dive deep into the phenomenon of co-teaching, as was experienced by each teacher. By uncovering the authentic experiences of co-teachers, the understanding of the co-teaching partnership increase, and educators and administrators were provided a different frame of understanding for future co-teaching implementation. By studying the co-teaching partnership and the phenomenon of the partnership, an authentic understanding was uncovered. Understanding the authentic experiences of co-teachers allows educators and administrators to better prepare and support the co-teaching practice.

Employers are having problems filling vacancies with qualified workers. While secondary education has placed an emphasis on students being college ready, a majority of Career Technology Education students indicate they are not getting career knowledge as a part of their career technology education experience. Currently, the prevailing idea is that some educational systematic shortfall exists. In this quantitative causal comparative study, the researcher sought to determine if there was a difference between the levels of career engagement among career readiness pathways of schools located in the Mid-Atlantic region. Recent high school graduates from a Mid-Atlantic school district were administered the Career Engagement Scale online to determine if the level of engagement varied by proactively developing future career endeavors as expressed through career development autonomy during class time. A convenience sample of 260 participants was used. A one-way analysis of variance was implemented to determine if any differences exist between career engagement for three different career readiness pathways. No significant differences were found in career engagement scores in various career pathways. Implications of the findings are examined and recommendations for future research are made.

A significant shift in student demographics in United States public schools has summoned the attention and action of public school educators to address the needs of English learners (ELs) who are required to meet the same academic standards as their English-speaking peers. Across the nation, school administrators, teachers, and other education specialists face challenges in fully meeting the academic demands of ELs, especially when including the students in general education classrooms. The purpose of this qualitative descriptive case study was to examine the implementation of inclusive practices, or specific instructional and academic supports that teachers provide to ELs, in middle school, core-subject-area classes at a Midwestern metropolitan public school district. Part of the qualitative research design included data collected from 20 interviews of school principals, core-subject-area teachers, instructional coaches, and other educational specialists, in order to share their perspectives and current reality regarding inclusive practice supports for ELs. Twelve observations of Professional Learning Community (PLC) sessions also contributed data on teacher collaboration to better serve ELs in core classrooms. When analyzing the interview and observation data, four major findings were identified that align with the purpose of the study, research questions, conceptual framework, and the literature review. The findings include an understanding that all ELs have varied backgrounds, experiences, and skills; that there are specific instructional implications which teachers must be aware of and apply in their teaching practices; the need for explicit professional development to be provided to educators regarding ELs and how they best learn; and that purposeful collaboration efforts among educators is crucial to student success. The study found that all participants agree to a shared responsibility for students, and to improve the education of ELs, it is imperative for educators to refine their personal knowledge, understanding, commitment, and other elements of working with students to the best of their abilities. It was concluded that if all these conditions are addressed and implemented to a high degree, ELs will be successful at school and meet the same academic standards as their English-speaking peers. This dissertation study was completed in tandem with another researcher colleague and doctoral candidate who was focused on high school educators (grades nine through 12) at the same study site, which allows for the potential to further define inclusion for ELs and to offer clarity regarding the implementation of inclusive practice strategies provided by secondary general-education teachers. Advisor: Kent Mann

In addition to requisite knowledge and skills in the area of reading, self-efficacy is imperative for students’ success in academic tasks. While a considerable amount of research has been conducted on self-efficacy, there is a dearth of research with high school students’ reading self-efficacy. Moreover, there is virtually no research investigating the potential differences in reading self-efficacy for students enrolled in different kinds of senior English courses. This non-experimental quantitative causal-comparative study sought to examine whether there was a difference between the reading self-efficacy for male and female students enrolled in general education English classes and students enrolled in dual enrollment English classes. A convenience sample of 190 students in two school districts in southwest Virginia was administered the Self-Efficacy for Reading scale developed by Prat-Sala and Redford (2010). A two-way ANOVA was used to determine the differences in means scores for the two groups. There was a statistically significant difference in the reading self-efficacy based on course placement, with dual enrollment students reporting higher levels of self-efficacy than students enrolled in general education English classes. There was not a statistical significance in reading self-efficacy based on gender, nor was there a significant interaction between gender and course placement.

The purpose of this qualitative descriptive single-case study is to present practical applications and instructional practices of one Wisconsin secondary school currently implementing universal response to intervention (RTI) practices within the general education classroom as identified by the Wisconsin RtI Center. For this study RTI was defined as a prevention model of instruction used within a three-tiered system where teachers evaluate the success of students’ academic interventions through growth monitoring. The guiding principle of this study, the growth mindset theory, believes intelligence is malleable and therefore educators have a tremendous impact on the mindset, and by extension, growth-mindset of students. The research questions grounding this study are: (a) How are RTI factors (Tier I, Tier II, and Tier III) implemented across all ability groups in a universal manner? (b) What support factors are needed for faculty to feel confident implementing Tier I RTI modifications to general and gifted education students? (c) How is the school using the universal screener to identify students in need of Tier I, II, and III instructional modifications? Data was collected from Twelve adult participants, all of whom were under full time teaching or administrative contracts at a singular Midwest secondary public school identified as a School of Distinction by the Wisconsin RtI Center. Specifically, this case study focused on gathering and analyzing data through individual interview sessions of full-time faculty members and administrators, as well as observations of a professional learning community (PLC) meeting with a focus on RTI reflection and application, and a teacher-led focus group session. This case study found that while a consistent understanding of universal RTI screening tools were present among faculty, there were discrepancies between the middle and high school by way of application of tools.

The purpose of this phenomenological study was to describe the experiences of elementary general education teachers instructing students diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) in a suburban North Georgia inclusion setting. The four research questions that guided this study included (a) How do elementary general education teachers describe their experiences teaching students with ASD in their classrooms? (b) In what ways do teachers describe how the presence of students with ASD influence their beliefs regarding inclusion? (c) How do teachers describe the challenges they faced with students with ASD in the inclusion setting? and (d) How do teachers describe the benefits they faced with students with ASD in the inclusion setting. The theories guiding the study were Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) social ecological systems theory and Bandura’s (1977) social learning theory as each of these theories adopt the perspective that individuals are products of their environments, which affect the students with ASD and teachers in the inclusive setting. Data collection included 10 elementary general education teacher participants’ interviews and journals, my researcher journal, and an online focus group. I provided rich, descriptive characterizations of the phenomenon as I conducted the data analysis using coding, peer review, enriched description, and triangulation. Conclusively, the results of this study provided a voice for elementary general education teachers who instructed students with ASD I identified four themes from this study: (a) beliefs, (b) relationships, (c) challenges, and (d) benefits. Recommendations for future research include using diverse schools, increasing the number of participants, and researching the collaboration between general and special education teachers in the inclusion setting.

According to the National Center for Education Statistics (2015) only 34% of eighth grade students in the U.S. scored at or above proficient in reading and only 33% were at or above proficient in math. Reading comprehension is essential for the acquisition of knowledge in all coursework and those students who have reading deficits may experience increased academic failure. Deficits in math skills may also increase core academic failure for secondary students expected to complete rigorous courses in algebra and beyond. In a review of the literature, Blount (2012) deduced that academic failure is one of the main predictive risk factors in secondary students for dropping out of school, which can have long term social, emotional, and financial ramifications. The importance of reading and math achievement is not under debate; however, the research in the literature regarding systematic academic intervention for secondary students is sparse (Bemboom & McMaster, 2013). This quantitative study used Fullan’s (2007) change theory as a framework to examine teachers’ perceptions of implementing a multi-tiered system of support (MTSS) standard protocol to meet the diverse reading and math intervention needs of middle and high school students. A survey was administered to attain perception data of middle and high school teachers (N = 129) in two Class A school districts in North Dakota. The research questions focused specifically on Fullan’s (2007) four factors of implementing change as dependent variables – need, clarity, complexity, and quality/practicality. Results of the study showed that all teachers surveyed report some form of agreement regarding need (M = 4.06), clarity (M = 3.87), complexity (M = 3.35), and quality/practicality (M = 3.73). A one-way within subjects ANOVA was conducted and there was a significant difference in the perceptions of teachers between the four characteristics of change, F(3,384) = 64.13, p < .05. The results of the paired samples t-tests show that need was significantly higher than clarity, complexity, and quality/practicality. All four characteristics of change were found to contribute significantly at the coefficient level to the multiple regression model predicting perceived success (R2 = .665, F(4, 124) = 61.41, p < .001), with need having the strongest correlation with success (r(128) = .72, p < .001). The results of one-way MANOVA tests did not show significant differences regarding the four characteristics of change between special education teachers and general education teachers (F (4, 123) = 1.24, p = .297; Wilks’ Λ = .961, partial η2 = .04) or between middle school teachers and high school teachers (F (4, 123) = .680, p = .607; Wilks’ Λ = .978, partial η2 = .02). Results demonstrate the applicability of Fullan’s change theory in examining implementation of a multi-tiered system of support standard protocol within secondary schools. Since a high predictor of perceived success of MTSS implementation is need, an implication of the study is to guide school leadership to establish the need for students as well as show how MTSS can meet the needs of the staff prior to implementation.

The purpose of this action research project was to collect both qualitative and quantitative data to acquire information in teacher efficacy from the viewpoint of teachers themselves so that pedagogical practices could be enhanced to better serve the special needs student population. In this study, the relationship between teachers' perception of their pedagogical knowledge and beliefs and teachers' sense of self-efficacy was examined. This particular study was aimed at helping general and special education teachers understand, develop, and implement pedagogical practices that would increase their ability to educate students with special needs. The findings from this study revealed a substantial relationship between the components of teacher confidence in implementing pedagogical practices and teacher self-efficacy. Implications for teaching students with special needs are discussed.

Assistive technology devices are being utilized more frequently in classrooms for accommodations and modifications, especially for students with disabilities. These devices can be high technology devices containing batteries, or low technology devices which may be inexpensive and do not require batteries to be used. Throughout the thesis, the use of high technology devices and low technology devices is specified to introduce the idea of integrating devices into general education and special education classrooms. Furthermore, resources are provided regarding learning more about specific devices, how to further implement technology in the classroom, and catalogs to buy devices.

There have been significant achievements in the improvement of educational opportunities for students with disabilities over the last four decades. Nevertheless, concerns about the quality of special education persist and abound. How students are identified, the overidentification of poor and minority students, levels of inclusion, and disagreements about what constitutes appropriate instruction are long-standing issues in the field of special education. Today, we expect schools to support all students in meeting the same rigorous standards while also attending to the individual needs of students. This three-article dissertation explores two federal special education policy instruments that have helped to shape these expectations for schools and have also tried to provide a means by which schools might achieve these aims. In telling the story of these two policy instruments, the Individualized Education Program (IEP) and Response to Intervention (RTI), as well as the story of one state’s efforts to craft a statewide RTI policy, this dissertation illustrates a case of problem solving in which policymakers tried to address fundamental social problems while also contending with the consequences of past efforts. In the stories of the IEP nationally and Tennessee’s version of RTI, policymakers sought to manage the collision of ambitious aims and weak capabilities that were features of the environment in which these policy instruments were designed and that affected the solutions policymakers put forth. Both the IEP and Tennessee’s RTI reflected and tried to manage critical features of the environment in which they were produced. Most notably, this environment was defined by legal and structural features designed to limit the centralized control and power of government, a limited knowledge and practice base for educating all students, and strong ideological and philosophical beliefs about the equalizing effects of education and the responsibilities of schools. These features of the environment were reflected in the designs of the IEP and Tennessee’s RTI as policymakers attempted to support schools and districts in meeting their ambitious aims while having little leverage with which to do so. In trying to understand how policymakers managed this collision between ambitious aims and weak capability, this dissertation draws on the work of Cohen and Moffitt (2009), who argue that a gap exists between policy and practice that can be managed with four types of actions and resources: aims, instruments, capability, and the environment. In using this analytic frame, I illustrate the ways in which central features of the environment shaped these special education reform efforts and how policymakers, in turn, endeavored to manage the policy-practice gap that they created. Their efforts came in the form of 1) procedures (found in both the IEP and Tennessee’s RTI) and broad guiding principles, 2) a range of other instruments to support implementation, and 3) a process of designing and redesigning as policies are put into practice.

This qualitative dissertation examines how teacher preparation programs take up policy messages from two state agencies. These questions guided the study: 1) What are the messages about RTI and MTSS from the California Department of Education and the California Commission on Teacher Credentialing; and, 2) How are RTI and MTSS taken up by preparation programs and understood by teacher educators? The research sites were two large public universities in urban areas in California with general and special education teacher preparation programs. Data was obtained from the websites of the CDE and CCTC, interviews with teacher educators, and preparation program materials.Findings support that the CDE is the major proponent of RtI and MTSS but lacks the regulatory power to impact teacher preparation. While the CCTC did have regulatory authority over teacher preparation its guidelines were written in broad language and did not require that programs include specific practices necessary to implement RtI and MTSS. Without this regulatory press incorporation of RtI and MTSS was at the discretion of faculty. Special education was the source of knowledge about RtI and MTSS despite the fact that the CDE clearly situates these practices in general education. General education teacher educators were ambivalent about RtI and MTSS and were unwilling to sacrifice precious time during initial preparation to these topics. These findings have implications for policy makers, teacher educators, and research on policy implementation.

Problem Statement The literature from Cameroon depicts that the implementation of inclusive education is not only in its embryonic stage but faces resistance from educators who are still not accepting of the presence of students with disabilities in general education classrooms. This resistance has been attributed to several factors ranging from attachment to customs and traditions that encourage the isolation of persons with disabilities, to the lack of resources and professionals needed for the successful implementation of inclusive education programs. These unfavorable attitudes have been a cause for concern among parents, educators, and especially government leaders who do not want to be left behind the international community in embracing inclusive education. Researchers have found that unsuccessful inclusive programs stem from teachers’ perceptions of the concept of inclusion, their teaching ability, classroom management, and benefits/outcomes of inclusion. As a result, this study sought to examine if there is a relationship between teachers’ characteristics (such as gender, age, the level of education, years of teaching experience, experience teaching in inclusive classrooms, training, and teachers’ language of instruction), and their attitudes toward inclusive education. Method A quantitative non-experimental descriptive survey research design was used in this study. Participants included 346 full-time state licensed general education teachers from seven bilingual secondary schools participating in SEEPD pilot inclusive education program in the North West Region of Cameroon. A survey instrument “Opinions Relative to the Integration of Students with Disabilities” (ORI) was used to collect data in determining the attitudes of general education teachers toward inclusion. The Statistical Package for Social Sciences Software (SPSS) was used to analyze the data, organize the results, and provide descriptive statistics, multivariate and univariate analysis of variances (MANOVA, and ANOVA). Results Teachers’ attitudes toward inclusive education in Cameroon were negative on how they perceived the concept of inclusion and perceptions of their ability to teach in inclusive classrooms. They had positive attitudes toward managing students with disabilities in inclusive classrooms, and about the outcomes/benefits of inclusion. Overall, most teachers in the pilot inclusive education program in the North West Region of Cameroon were not accepting of the presence of students with disabilities in general education classrooms. These negative attitudes were manifested in teachers’ self-perceptions of their inability or lack of training in both special and inclusive education. There was no significant difference in attitudes on the basis of the language of instruction. However, differences were found regarding the other demographic variables such as age, gender, experience, and education. Male teachers were more favorable to inclusion than their female colleagues. Additionally, older, more experienced, more qualified, and more educated teachers, were more likely to be supportive of inclusive education than younger, less experienced, less qualified, and less educated ones. Conclusion This study was conducted in general education secondary schools actively engaged in a pilot effort to introduce inclusive classroom practices in seven selected bilingual secondary schools in the North West Region of Cameroon. It is not certain what the level of acceptance the practice of integrating students with disabilities into the general education classroom would be if the study were carried out in schools not actively involved in the inclusive education initiative. Nonetheless, what stands out about the findings of this study is that most teachers showed negative attitudes about the success or outcome of inclusive education and indicated that the training they received in special education and inclusive education was not enough to ensure a successful integration of students with disabilities into general education classrooms. These findings support not only the rationale but also the urgent need for investment by all Cameroonian education stakeholders, especially the leading sponsor of education, the government, in the training of special education professionals and paraprofessionals in the country. These revelations also constitute a call for needed action from instructional leaders and higher education leaders who can make a difference by promoting professional development through seminars and workshops as well as creating targeted special education programs in the various institutions of higher learning in the country.

Citizens must have a minimal level of STEM-literacy to work alongside scientists to tackle both current and future global challenges. How can general education, the one piece of the undergraduate experience every student completes, contribute to this development? And science learning is dependent on having transformative aesthetic experiences in the science classroom. These memorable experiences involve powerful connection between students and the world around them. If these types of experiences are necessary for science learning and growth, are students in introductory science courses having them? If so, what relationship might they have with students' desires to pursue further science study? This dissertation explores these questions through two manuscripts. The first, a theoretical piece published in the Journal of General Education in 2015, argues that non-STEM students must have transformative aesthetic experiences in their undergraduate general education science course to develop the level of understanding needed to engage with challenging scientific issues in the future. This claim is substantiated by bringing together the work of Dewey and Deweyan scholars on the nature and impact of aesthetic experiences in science and science education with the general education reform efforts and desired outcomes for an informed and engaged citizenry. The second manuscript, an empirical piece, explores the lived experience of non-STEM students in an introductory geosciences course. A phenomenological research methodology is deployed to capture the 'essence' of the lived experience of a STEM-philic student in general education science. In addition, Uhrmacher's CRISPA framework is used to analyze the participants' most memorable course moments for the presence or absence of aesthetic experiences. In explication of the data, it shows that students are in fact having aesthetic experiences (or connecting to prior aesthetic experiences) and these experiences are related to their desires to pursue further STEM study.

"Awful" and "worthless" are some words used by students to describe the general education curriculum at Virginia Tech. Currently, the university is about to implement a revised curriculum, in part, to make it more relevant to students. Virginia Tech isn't alone in general education reform; around 90 percent of higher education institutions are in the process of assessing or modifying their curriculum. Beyond making general education more relevant to students, colleges and universities are feeling pressure to bring out of date curricula up to 21st century standards, with best practices being guided by external agencies such as the Association of American Colleges and Universities. With a new general education curriculum to be implemented at Virginia Tech, there is a need for a strategic and clear approach to communication to avoid confusion while also highlighting the benefits of the new curriculum. Research into change management, change communication, and public relations can inform this type of plan; however, the unique organizational structure of higher education institutions must be considered. This study seeks to bring those bodies of research together. Using a grounded theory approach, this case study analyzes the general education reform processes at three universities that have revised and implemented a new general education curriculum recently.

The researcher attempted to determine if a correlation exists between student/instructor rapport, student perceptions of instructor effectiveness, and course grade expectations for freshman general education courses at a career college in the Great Lakes Region of the United States. Previous studies have determined that rapport affects motivation (Bergström, 2010; Frisby, Berger, Burchett, Herovic, & Strawser, 2014; Legg & Wilson, 2009), perceptions of teacher effectiveness (Giles, 2011; Kozub, 2010), and evaluation scores (Barth, 2008; Kowai-Bell, Guadango, Little, & Ballew, 2012). The researcher asked the following research questions: Is there a relationship between student/instructor rapport, as measured by the Professor-Student Rapport Scale (Wilson, Ryan, & Pugh, 2010), and student perceptions of instructor effectiveness in freshman general education courses at a career college in the Great Lakes Region of the United States; and is there a relationship between student/instructor rapport and students’ expectations of their overall course grade in freshman general education courses at a career college in the Great Lakes Region of the United States? The study was conducted as quantitative research using a non-experimental correlational research design. The study was conducted at a career college in the Great Lakes Region of the United States using students enrolled in general education courses. Data were collected using two instruments, the Professor-Student Rapport Scale and the IDEA Student Ratings of Instruction Short Form. The data were analyzed using Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient (Pearson’s r) and Spearman’s rank-order correlation coefficient (Spearman’s rs). The study found statistically significant positive correlations between Professor-Student Rapport and Instructor Evaluation and between Professor-Student Rapport and Student Expected Course Grade.

ABSTRACTDual Enculturation: A Comparison of Five L2 Students Writing for One General Education Course by Kara Elise OttoThis dissertation investigates five international undergraduate students writing two papers for a single disciplinary course. The course is dually classified as meeting a pre-major requirement and a general education writing requirement. Disciplinary contexts classified as general education often involve resistant students whom identify with other disciplines, but are forced into enrollment by institutional requirement. This means students must adopt sometimes-contrasting thinking and writing perspectives. In the case of large courses featuring competitive assessment, this may become especially problematic – particularly for non-native speakers of English – because rationales for disciplinary distinction may be even more obscured by other academic, institutional, linguistic, or cultural concerns. Courses of this type tend not to be researched in prior studies of second language writing.This dissertation relies upon qualitative methods of data collection – particularly text- based interviewing - in asking: (1) How do L2 international students interpret and approach writing assignments in a general education, social science course? (2) What strategies and resources do they use in the writing process, and where do they come from? These questions are important because they lend heterogeneity to populations of international students increasing on U.S. college campuses, and because they may debunk tendencies to group students as more similar then they actually may be – particularly in disciplinary contexts where instructors lack expertise in both writing instruction and L2 student writing.Furthermore, studies of L2 students engaged in disciplinary writing lag behind those investigating general composition classrooms, and studies that do investigate L2 students in disciplinary situations tend not to focus upon several writers in the same course. Researchers further tend to make use of their own subjects. Finally, the field of second language writing is new, developing theoretically, and still influenced by its parent fields. As such, studies tend to under-theorize and there is a need for theoretical development from within the field.Findings from this study garner support for the use of sociohistoric theory as an emergent, analytical tool capable of explaining L2 writers’ diverse practices in disciplinary contexts; however, in stemming from this analytical frame, this study provides a new theoretical explanation called dual enculturation. This term bridges key empirical priorities for two separate but related parent fields of second language writing: composition and applied linguistics. Importantly, this term derives from students’ perspectives - whether accurate or not - that they somehow struggled additionally with assigned writing tasks because of their NNES status. Students’ reports indicated that they managed additional writing difficulties, which they presumed were otherwise absent in the experiences of their NES peers enrolled in the same course. Dual enculturation represents writing tensions reported across the five international students. Students believed that their written texts could not focus exclusively upon competence in social science writing. Instead, students reported an additional and sometimes conflicting responsibility to demonstrate competence in academic writing as a separate but equally important discipline, and one they equated with knowledge of the L2 language and culture. Finally, additional findings point toward the nature of feedback absorption as systemically acquired, rather than within a local or immediate writing context teachers might assume.

Due to the increasing prevalence rates of individuals diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2014) and increasing inclusion rates reported by the state of Ohio (Ohio Department of Education, 2012), general education teachers are increasingly called on to provide support in the classroom for these students. Thus, it is important to understand teachers’ perceptions of these experiences. Previous research indicates that teachers hold favorable perceptions regarding the inclusion of students with autism in the classroom (Robertson, Chamberlain, & Kasari, 2003); however, few studies have examined the relationship between these perceptions and teachers’ previous training and education on autism or their experiences educating students with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) in an inclusive classroom. Through a web-based survey, 108 general education teachers from Ohio reported on their backgrounds, and responded to statements about their perception of educating students with an ASD in an inclusive classroom. Results indicated general education teachers had somewhat favorable perceptions in educating students with an ASD in an inclusive classroom. There was no significant relationship between a teacher’s perceptions and the teacher’s training or education on autism, or previous experiences educating students with an ASD in an inclusive classroom. However, general education teachers reported their pre-service training on autism as insufficient; they also reported rarely taking part in employment-based trainings regarding autism. General education teachers reported a desire to gain better understanding of characteristics of ASD, evidence-based behavioral interventions, and teaching strategies for students with ASD. Schools should aim to address these concerns, and school psychologists are in an effective position to carry out such trainings.

Federal legislation has mandated that all students, including students with disabilities, perform at or above a certain level on standardized tests. Students with disabilities consistently have scored below the required minimum score. Educators have begun implementing co-teaching strategies in the general education classroom in order to better serve the students with disabilities. This has caused concern among some parents and other educators as to how the inclusion of special education students in the general classroom will affect the achievement of general education students. This quantitative study is designed to gather data from the math section of the Criterion Referenced Competency Test (CRCT) from four middle schools in South Georgia. This data will be gathered in order to review the scores of general education students in the co-taught environment. The study will employ the causal/comparative (ex post facto data study) design to collect the needed data.

This study examined the influence of placement in a co-taught inclusive classroom on the academic achievement of general education students in Grades 6-8 in a suburban New York school district on the 2014 New York State ELA and Mathematics Assessments. Propensity score matching was utilized to select the sample to provide a balanced sampling technique. The final sample was comprised of 746 students in Grades 6-8 in a suburban New York upper middle class district during the 2013-14 school year. The variables that were included in this study were gender, socioeconomic status, attendance, ethnicity, past academic performance as measured by the 2013 New York State ELA and Mathematics Assessments, and placement in a co-taught inclusive classroom for ELA or Mathematics. Analyses were conducted using simultaneous and hierarchical multiple regression models, logistic regression, and factorial ANCOVA. Results of this study indicated that placement in a co-taught inclusive classroom had a statistically significant negative influence on the performance of Grades 6-8 general education students on both the 2014 New York State ELA Assessment and 2014 New York State Mathematics Assessment. Grades 6-8 general education students who were not placed in a co-taught inclusive classroom had a greater chance of being Proficient on both the 2014 New York State ELA Assessment and New York State Mathematics Assessment. Further research needs to be conducted on the co-taught inclusive classroom to determine why it had a negative influence on the academic achievement of general education students.

The purpose of this phenomenological study is to describe the experiences of general education elementary school inclusion co-teachers in schools that are successful with their special education population as defined by Adequate Yearly Progress and most recently, the College and Career Ready Performance Index. The participants were employed in a district in the metro Atlanta area. The primary research question was, "What are the experiences of general education teachers in inclusion and co-teaching classrooms in schools that have met Adequate Yearly Progress and College and Career Ready Performance Index for students with disabilities?" The three sub-questions addressed the self-efficacy, motivation, and perceptions of the teachers. Data collection included interviews, participant journals, and a focus group. Analysis followed procedures for a transcendental phenomenological study as outlined by Moustakas (1994). Four themes emerged regarding their experiences: (a) putting forth the effort to be life-long learners, (b) valuing the power of relationships, (c) thriving off of student success, and (d) setting aside frustrations and understanding the big picture.

Co-teaching is an approach that is frequently used by schools when students both with and without disabilities are taught in an inclusive classroom. With co-teaching, a general education teacher and a special education teacher share the responsibility of planning and teaching students. This study examined the perceptions of elementary special education co-teachers (n=81) regarding their collaboration with the general educator and their involvement in instruction in the inclusive classroom. In addition, the special education teachers' satisfaction with the co-teaching assignment was investigated. Findings showed that special education co-teachers shared an average of 30 minutes of co-planning a week, teachers who volunteered to co-teach were more likely to plan more often than teachers who were assigned to co-teach, teachers in their first 3 years of the co-teaching relationship tended to have scheduled planning time compared to the spontaneous planning time of co-teachers with long-term relationships. Co-teachers shared the management of the behaviors of all of the students in the classroom. The primary role of the co-teacher was "floating and assisting" with all students rather than focusing solely on the students with disabilities. However, many co-teachers taught small groups of students comprised of students both with and without disabilities. Overall, co-teachers were satisfied with their assignment and career.

The purpose of this study was to describe the structure of general education curricula at baccalaureate colleges of health science in relationship to Bergquist’s Career-Based Model of curriculum. Using an explanatory sequential mixed methods approach, the model was tested by examining whether the curricula were both prescriptive and specific. First, the researcher analyzed how prescriptive the general education curricula at 38 colleges of health science were by evaluating the institutions’ catalogs and websites. In the qualitative phase, the researcher interviewed general education leaders at six of the colleges to confirm the quantitative data and obtain information about how specific the general education curricula were to healthcare. The quantitative findings supported Bergquist’s model that colleges of health science have a prescriptive curriculum with 71% of the colleges having a core, major-dominated or mixed model with a primary component of core or major-dominated. In addition, the number of required general education credits and the proportion of required math and science credits were higher than data from most national studies for other types of colleges. The interviews confirmed that general education is strongly prescriptive and also demonstrated that some colleges have a distribution model where students take a limited number of offerings in selected categories, but that the major program requirements dictate the courses students in each major must take within the distribution categories. Implemented this way, even the distribution model was prescriptive. These findings also supported Bergquist’s model by illustrating how specific the general education course content was to healthcare. Adviser: Brent Cejda

The purpose of this descriptive study is to investigate the relationship between educational placement and teacher language input. Differences in the amount of wh- question types produced between general and special elementary teachers are documented. Findings were gathered from audio recordings of language arts instruction, and indicated that teachers in both classroom types produced a range of wh- questions including: what, who, when, which, where, why, and how. Results indicated that teachers in general education classrooms produced more wh- questions per minute than did teachers in special education classrooms but this difference did not reach statistical significance. The two teacher groups produced more what questions than any other type of wh- question. The role of school-based speech-language pathologists in improving questioning practices of general and special education teachers is discussed.

The purpose of this systematic grounded theory study was to explain how problems inherent in co-teaching relationships are resolved by secondary school special education and general education teachers at an urban school district in Eastern Iowa. The participants were general and special education secondary school teachers involved in effective co-teaching partnerships. Data was collected from five partnerships, utilizing focus groups, interpersonal behavior theory questionnaires, classroom observations, and individual interviews. The researcher analyzed the data using systematic grounded theory procedures of open coding, axial coding, and selective coding to develop a theory grounded in the data collected about the process by which teachers overcome problems in co-teaching. The theory, Achieving Symbiosis, reflects three main stages of this process. In Initiation, a co-teaching relationship begins. Then, teachers work at becoming effective in the Symbiosis Spin. Finally, Fulfillment is achieved when all the pieces fit together to create an effecting co-teaching partnership. The theory is presented as a hypothesis for future research to explore later. Insight gained from this study supports co-teachers as they work through the process of creating effective co-teaching partnerships, as well as administrators who support co-teachers in their buildings.

Facilitators make decisions when designing and creating differential instructional materials or activities. The materials or activities each embed scaffolding into the creation process of learning design. Instructional materials require a digital solution for the millennial generation (1977—1990) whether in postsecondary education or the business world (Hudson, K. and Hiemstra, G., 2009). A digital format invokes advocacy on the part of a learner’s additional work for a facilitator to respond to student-centric learning. Moreover, connectivism enables the inclusive classroom model to function. According to the Center for Applied Special Technology (CAST), the underlying premise is a reflective awareness of the unique nature of the learner (CAST, 2003). A need exists to accommodate differences, creating learning experiences that suit the learner and maximize his or her ability to progress.A study of generational domains involves differential instruction using pedagogy and tools offering influence for the need of the program, the design, implementation and service delivery, impact or intended learning outcomes, and program effectiveness. Research by Pea (1993), Prensky (2001), and Siemens (2006) gleans information from individuals and shapes their future through learning, discovery, collaboration and personal growth.This study provides information useful to postsecondary education institutions in learning design and practice. Differential instruction theory in this study demonstrated efficient and effective student-centric curricula for improved assessment scores on educational goals/aspirations, foundation to complete under-graduate degree program, and the development of students as future collegiate alumni of critical thinking citizens.

In this dissertation, I explore the reasons behind general education reform in Chinese universities from a global and local perspective; I look at the status of general education in two top-tier universities, and, examining faculty members' participation in general education policy development and their experiences with general education practice on their campuses, I try to understand the difficulties of implementing general education in the Chinese university context. Theoretical frameworks include theories of globalization and the interaction of the global and the local, institutional theories from Meyer et al., and Weick's organizational theory of viewing an organization as a loosely coupled system. This study adopts a qualitative case study approach, and two top-tier Chinese universities were selected as cases. For each university, four to five administrators were interviewed to understand the university's general education reform process and its current status. Three to four faculty members from the Chinese departments and chemistry departments were also interviewed in order to understand faculty members' participation and experience in the university's general education reform. The findings include the following: General education reform in top-tier Chinese universities is part of these universities' response to changing local and global contexts, and is tied to the universities' need to broaden undergraduate curriculum and the goal of becoming world-class universities. The reform at both universities was a top-down initiative and most faculty members did not participate in the policy making and implementation process. Because of the lack of involvement in policy making and implementation, faculty members lack a shared view with the university administration sector as to what general education is trying to accomplish. Faculty members' participation in general education practice is mainly reflected in teaching general education courses. Because of the current faculty promotion criteria and the tradition of emphasizing one's specialty, faculty members usually are not interested in teaching general education courses unless they are really passionate about general education.This study offers a more comprehensive perspective for looking at the larger context of general education reform in Chinese universities and helps to understand connections with the larger national and global background. It offers its reader a more inclusive understanding of how different shareholders on campus have participated and experienced the reform as well as some of the barriers that have hindered general education practice in the two institutions. The study presents valuable experiences to other Chinese universities that are trying to pursue general education reform. Since an increasing number of Chinese students are studying for graduate degrees in other countries, this study also introduces readers from English-speaking countries to the Chinese university's system of undergraduate education, its recent reform, and how it is connected to the larger global higher education system.

This study examined the impact of a service-based course in diversity on pre-service teachers attitudes toward the inclusion of diverse learners (ethnically, socioeconomically, and disabled) in the general classroom. One-hundred and ten students at a private liberal arts university in North Carolina completed the Pluralism and Diversity Attitude Assessment (PADAA) to measure pre-service teachers' attitudes toward including cultural diverse students in the general education classroom, the Opinions Relative to Integration (ORI) instrument to measure pre-service teachers' attitudes toward including disabled students in the general education classroom, and a short demographic survey Results indicate an introductory class has impact in improving a pre-service teachers' attitude toward the inclusion of diverse learners, specifically students with disabilities, in the general education classroom. However, according to review of literature, this factor is not enough to improve the achievement levels of diverse learners whom are taught in the general classroom. Suggestion for change and further research are included.

The purpose of this study was to determine if there was a difference in middle school general education teachers' perception of the inclusion of students with disabilities in general education classes. A survey was sent to general education teachers at 14 middle schools in the Northeast Georgia Pioneer Regional Education Services Agency (RESA). The answers to the survey were compiled and analyzed for the differences in teacher perceptions of inclusion. The two groups were comprised of general education teachers who have taught in inclusive middle school settings and general education teachers who have taught only in traditional middle school settings. The general question addressed in this study was: Are there statistically significant differences in the perceptions of general education teachers that teach in inclusive middle school settings and general education teachers that teach only in traditional middle school settings towards the inclusion of students with disabilities? The researcher used a t-test to determine the statistical significance between the two groups.

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The passage of the Education for All Handicapped Children Act in 1975 gave the public schools a clear responsibility to appropriately educate students with disabilities. This responsibility emerged from a combination of philosophy, law, policy, and procedures oriented towards the "normalization" of services to persons with disabilities. These services have developed as a general responsibility of the whole system and not as a separate component of the educational enterprise. In order to meet federal mandates, the complementary disciplines of general and special education leadership have had to integrate or link, in order to address the responsibility for the delivery of services to students with disabilities. In doing so, general education administrators have become responsible for the education and success of all students, including those students with disabilities. Yet, many of these administrators have not been prepared or trained to serve special population groups, so their task of educating all students becomes more complex. A literature synthesis suggested 12 components that all educational administrators should be trained in to serve students with disabilities: (a) relationship building and communication; (b) leadership and vision; (c) budget and capital; (d) laws and policies; (e) curriculum and instruction; (f) personnel; (g) evaluation of data, programs, students, and teachers; (h) collaboration and consultation; (i) special education programming; (j) organization; (k) professional development; and (l) advocacy. To determine if such training is occurring in elite institutions, 293 professors at University Council for Educational Administration member institutions completed an online survey. Results indicated that relationship building and communication as well as leadership and vision were being taught at the highest percentages. The components of budget and capital, advocacy, and special education programming were incorporated the least. Interestingly, the results showed that the component being required learning in the institution's program or the professor believing the component to be essential for future administrators had little impact on whether it was taught. The major factors in professors regularly teaching a component was their expertise in the area and whether it was part of their research agenda.

This study focused on identifying the components that contribute to instructional delivery in co-taught secondary classrooms in hopes of enhancing the understanding in the field of co-teaching in various secondary content areas. Employing a non-experimental mixed method research design, the study integrated qualitative and quantitative methods to gain insight into general education teachers' roles in solo-taught and co-taught classrooms and special educators' roles in co-taught classrooms. Instrumentation included the use of the Teacher Roles Observation Schedule (TROS), the Colorado Assessment of Co-Teaching (CO-ACT), interview questions, and field notes. The quantitative portion of the study consisted of event recordings of teacher interactions (TROS), co-teacher perception rating scale scores (CO-ACT), and class seating charts to monitor the occurrence of one-on-one interactions with students in both settings. The qualitative portion of the research study consisted of the researcher gathering ongoing field notes and teacher interviews. The researcher sought to identify the interaction behaviors of secondary co-teaching teams. The most and least successful co-teaching teams were identified based on the findings. The findings indicate teacher preparation programs need to prepare all teachers to first consider the diverse learning needs of all students and second, to effectively collaborate in inclusive settings. Special education preparation programs need to include more secondary content teaching courses. Likewise, general education preparation programs need to prepare future secondary general educators to differentiate instruction to meet the needs of students with disabilities. In addition to improvements in teacher preparation programs, school leaders need to provide ongoing support for co-teachers via planning time and professional development, so they can maximize the collaborative potential embedded within the co-teaching model.

The purpose of this study was to investigate four research questions concerning the impact of co-teaching on general education students educated within a classroom inclusion model. General education students who received instruction during their 10th-grade year in a co-taught language arts or mathematics class were compared with other 10th-grade students receiving instruction from the same teacher but without the additional co-teacher. Achievement data from the Florida Comprehensive Achievement Test (FCAT) were gathered on these students. The state of Florida calculates and reports developmental scale scores (DSS) for students taking the FCAT. These scores are calculated to track student progress over time in relationship to the FCAT at each grade level. This study compared the difference in DSS from 9th-grade to 10th-grade of general education students in co-taught classes. It was determined in this study that there was no statistically significant difference for general education students in co-taught language arts classes but there was a significant difference for those in mathematics classes as compared to their peers not in co-taught classes. When below proficient general education students were compared there was a significant difference for students in mathematics co-taught classes compared to those not in co-taught classes, but not for those in language arts classes. Additional analyses were conducted to determine if co-teaching was a factor in the overall learning gain calculation used by the state of Florida. It was determined that there was no significant difference in learning gains of general education co-taught students as compared to peers not in co-taught classes. Information for school and district leaders was provided to guide decision making regarding the use of co-teaching as an inclusion model. Further research is necessary to fully understand the implications of co-teaching on general education students.

This dissertation is an examination of general education teacher's attitudes toward the inclusion of students with special needs in their classroom and the variables that influence these attitudes. A theoretical framework for the examination of teacher attitudes includes the impact of efficacy, experience, training, grade level and subject area taught, and school variables. The relationship among these factors, teacher's instructional practices and student achievement are examined. For this study, participants were recruited from three public school districts in a midwestern state. An electronic survey developed by the researcher, along with a demographic questionnaire and study preamble were sent to middle and high school general education teachers in three participating districts. A total of 233 teachers responded. Descriptive statistics were calculated. A correlational analysis between teacher attitudes and teacher and school variables along with an analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted. The mean score for teacher attitudes toward inclusion was 3.79 with scores ranging from a low score of 2.96 and a high of 4.94 out of a possible score of 6.00. An analysis of the data revealed a negative correlation between teacher attitude and grade level taught meaning that the higher the grade level, the more negative the teacher attitude toward inclusion. A significant difference in teacher attitude toward inclusion by subject area taught was found. Participants who teach mathematics reported significantly lower attitudes toward inclusion than those who taught language arts and social studies. A further analysis revealed that almost 25% of the participants had no training what-so-ever in special education strategies, 48.5% of the teachers surveyed strongly agreed or moderately agreed that inclusion is a desirable practice and 44.7% of the teachers strongly or moderately agreed that everyone benefits from inclusive practices. When examining the findings of this study in light of the literature, teacher training has been identified as a primary contributor to teacher attitudes. Suggestions for providing general education teachers with the needed training are made as well as directions for future research.

Methods for promoting prosocial behavior in educational settings are many and varied. This literature review presents a context for defining and understanding prosocial behavior, including comparisons and contrasts with other behavioral concepts and terms. Understanding peer factors in the development of prosocial behavior can enhance the development and implementation of peer-based interventions. The four main types of peer-based interventions discussed are cooperative-learning groups, group-contingency plans, peer helpers, and positive peer reporting. Each of these interventions has a place in educational settings and should be utilized with social context and individual student characteristics in mind. Behavioral interventions that improve the overall classroom learning environment and are simple to implement and maintain are highly desirable for large general education settings. The accompanying study investigated the effects of a positive peer reporting (PPR) intervention on the social interactions of a group of 2nd grade general education students by using a modified replication of methods from the Grieger, Kaufman, and Grieger (1976) study. This study evaluated the effects of a peer reporting intervention on students’ social interactions. A withdrawal design was used to evaluate the changes in the level of students’ prosocial interactions across baseline and intervention phases. Visual analysis of the data across phases indicated that the percentage of intervals in which students engaged in prosocial interactions increased during the intervention phases, most notably after the initial implementation of the PPR intervention. Social validity data gathered from the participating teacher, students, and parents, indicated positive attitudes about the intervention and its impact on student behavior. These results add to the existing body of literature which demonstrates the success of PPR interventions for increasing students’ level of prosocial behaviors.

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The purpose of this study was to investigate the differences between general and special educators regarding the implementation of research-based strategies that target the needs of students with LD in mathematics, as well as general and special educators' perceptions of their preparedness to use instructional strategies in mathematics. A sample of general and special educators who taught mathematics to students with learning disabilities (LD) at the middle school level responded to an online survey. The survey examined teacher self-reported classroom use of instructional practices specifically aligned with NCTM standards, direct instruction, graduated instruction, grouping practices, and self-monitoring. Additionally, educators responded to perceptions of their preparedness to use the aforementioned instructional practices. From the survey results, several strategies exhibited statistically significant differences between general and special educators. Special educators showed significantly greater use of two instructional strategies, as well as significantly greater perceptions of preparedness to use two instructional strategies. Overall, significantly more special educators reported using the research-based strategies aligned with all instructional practices. Additional results, limitations, implications for practice, and recommendations for future research are provided.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of two pedagogical models used in general education science on non-majors' science teaching self-efficacy. Science teaching self-efficacy can be influenced by inquiry and cooperative learning, through cognitive mechanisms described by Bandura (1997). The Student Centered Activities for Large Enrollment Undergraduate Programs (SCALE-UP) model of inquiry and cooperative learning incorporates cooperative learning and inquiry-guided learning in large enrollment combined lecture-laboratory classes (Oliver-Hoyo & Beichner, 2004). SCALE-UP was adopted by a small but rapidly growing public university in the southeastern United States in three undergraduate, general education science courses for non-science majors in the Fall 2006 and Spring 2007 semesters. Students in these courses were compared with students in three other general education science courses for non-science majors taught with the standard teaching model at the host university. The standard model combines lecture and laboratory in the same course, with smaller enrollments and utilizes cooperative learning. Science teaching self-efficacy was measured using the Science Teaching Efficacy Belief Instrument - B (STEBI-B; Bleicher, 2004). A science teaching self-efficacy score was computed from the Personal Science Teaching Efficacy (PTSE) factor of the instrument. Using non-parametric statistics, no significant difference was found between teaching models, between genders, within models, among instructors, or among courses. The number of previous science courses was significantly correlated with PTSE score. Student responses to open-ended questions indicated that students felt the larger enrollment in the SCALE-UP room reduced individual teacher attention but that the large round SCALE-UP tables promoted group interaction. Students responded positively to cooperative and hands-on activities, and would encourage inclusion of more such activities in all of the courses. The large enrollment SCALE-UP model as implemented at the host university did not increase science teaching self-efficacy of non-science majors, as hypothesized. This was likely due to limited modification of standard cooperative activities according to the inquiry-guided SCALE-UP model. It was also found that larger SCALE-UP enrollments did not decrease science teaching self-efficacy when standard cooperative activities were used in the larger class.