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Black bears (Ursus americanus) were extirpated from the Cumberland Plateau (CP) in the late 19th to early 20th century due to habitat loss and overexploitation. After the Kentucky Department of Fish and Wildlife Resources, Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency, and the National Park Service showed interest in reintroducing bears into Big South Fork National River and Recreation Area (BSF), Eastridge and Clark (2001) experimentally translocated black bears from the Great Smoky Mountains National Park to BSF. Since the reintroduction, this population has been monitored with capture-recapture studies using genetic identification. A current and accurate estimate of density and abundance were needed to direct future management of the population as it expands beyond the boundaries of BSF. American black bears (Ursus americanus) were extirpated from the Cumberland Plateau in Tennessee and Kentucky in the late 19th to early 20th centuries due to habitat loss and overexploitation. After the Kentucky Department of Fish and Wildlife Resources, Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency, and the National Park Service showed interest in reintroducing bears into Big South Fork National River and Recreation Area (BSF), Eastridge and Clark (2001) experimentally translocated 14 female black bears from the Great Smoky Mountains National Park to BSF from 1996 to 1997. In 2010–2012, a population estimate based on DNA extracted from hair samples collected at barbed wire hair traps revealed that the population expanded to 190 individuals in Tennessee and 38 in Kentucky. Based on the Tennessee estimate alone, this was an 18.3% annual increase since reintroduction. The bear population was thought to have expanded its range in the Cumberland Plateau since that estimate was conducted, so a more current estimate of bear density and abundance was needed across a wider spatial extent to direct future management of this population. American black bears (Ursus americanus) were extirpated from the Cumberland Plateau in Tennessee and Kentucky in the late 19th to early 20th centuries due to habitat loss and overexploitation. Eastridge and Clark (2001) experimentally translocated 14 female black bears from Great Smoky Mountains National Park to Big South Fork National river and Recreation Area (BSF) from 1996 to 1997. In 2010–2012, a population estimate based on DNA extracted from hair samples collected at barbed wire hair traps revealed that the population had expanded to 190 individuals in Tennessee and 38 in Kentucky. The population was thought to have expanded its range in the Cumberland Plateau, so an updated estimate of bear density and abundance was needed across a wider spatial extent to direct future management. I used spatially explicit capture-recapture (SECR) to estimate bear density and abundance within and surrounding BSF in northern Tennessee and southern Kentucky. Barbed-wire sampling stations (i.e., hair traps) were constructed in a 3- × 3-trap layout per cluster with 2 km between hair traps within a cluster and 16 km between cluster centers. I used DNA from hair samples obtained from hair traps to identify individual bears and establish genetic capture histories. I utilized spatial covariates to model inhomogeneous densities within the study area. Population abundance estimates across the 36,035-km2 study area were 436.2 males (95% CI = 234.1–812.5) and 450.9 females (95% CI = 295.0–689.1) for a total of 887.1 (95% CI 607.5–1,295.3) bears, excluding cubs. Average density estimates were 0.012 (95% CI = 0.007–0.023) male bears/km2 and 0.013 (95% CI = 0.008–0.020) female bears/km2, totaling 0.025 (95% CI = 0.017–0.037) bears/km2. The mean annual growth rate was 20.4% since 1998. Based on my population estimates, growth rates, and harvest reports, harvest rates in Kentucky averaged 4.2% from 2013 to 2019 ranging from 1.8% to 6.1% annually. In Tennessee, harvest rates from 2014 to 2019 averaged 12.2% ranging from 4.8% to 23.5%. Kentucky has seen greater population growth than Tennessee (31.1% and 15.0% respectively), possibly due to more restrictive harvest regulations and availability of contiguous forested federal lands.

Wildlife agencies are forced to deal with difficult situations when orphaned or injured American black bear (Ursus americanus) cubs (12 and n = 13) was lower than for bears released as yearlings (1.00, SE = 0.00, n = 29), and the major cause of mortality was vehicular-collisions. Three of 42 bears (7.1%) released from ABR engaged in conflict up to 1 year post-release. Survival, cause-specific mortality, and engagement in post-release conflict of my study bears was similar to or higher than published reports for wild conspecifics. Bear rehabilitation should be considered a viable option for orphaned or injured cubs or yearlings.

Over the past 20 years the frequency of interactions between humans and black bears in Buncombe County, North Carolina has been increasing, posing threats to human safety, black bear populations, ecological stability, and conservation support. During this time, both the human population and the American black bear population increased in southern Appalachia, which, combined with both urban expansion and landscape fragmentation, led to an increase in human and black bear interactions. Reducing future interactions with black bears is important as these interactions put support for conservation at risk. I performed a landscape analysis to better understand where human and black bear interactions occurred in this county from 1993–2013. After performing statistical analyses, I concluded that landscape fragmentation and urban characteristics likely played a role in where human and black bear interactions took place. Results of this statistical analysis were that human population density, proportion of forested landscape per block group, urban edge density, and the effective forest mesh size per census tract had statistically significant relationships with the geographic distribution of human and black bear interactions. This research can assist planning and conservation initiatives that aim to reduce human and wildlife interactions. This research will also contribute to the growing literature on human and wildlife interactions and the spatial analysis techniques employed to understand them.

In the Interior Highlands of Arkansas, Missouri, and Oklahoma, over-harvest, extensive logging, and reductions of habitat availability by other means contributed to the decline of black bears (Ursus americanus). Bears were extirpated from the majority of the region by the 1940's Oklahoma by 1915 and from Missouri by 1931. From 1958-1968, the Arkansas Game and Fish Commission undertook a reintroduction to the Ouachita and the Ozark National Forests in Arkansas. The successful growth and expansion of the released population caused these efforts to be considered one of the most successful reintroductions of carnivores. In this dissertation, I sought to examine the current population size and density of bears in the Ouachita and the Ozark National Forests in Arkansas and to explore how dispersal patterns are influenced by population expansion. Density estimates are comparable to or above previous estimates done in the late 1980's/early 1990's. The population appears to have maintained or exceeded previous density estimates. There was evidence for female philopatry in both source and expanding populations, with relatedness declining with distance until about 30 km. In recently expanding populations, male-male dyads followed a similar pattern to female-female dyads with relatedness decreasing with distance. Female-female dyads in expanding populations also had higher levels of closely related dyads than female-female dyads in source populations. Only in recent years have large predator reintroductions been actively pursued and the goals of restoring a functional ecosystem been approached. The genetics of reintroduction and dispersal received research attention even more recently. Dispersal and gene flow into and out of populations, a process called connectivity, fundamentally shape wildlife distribution and abundance across the landscape. Connectivity determines taxonomic distinctiveness, colonization of new sites, and persistence of both local populations and metapopulations of linked populations. With measures of connectivity in hand, we can better understand the role it plays for a particular wildlife species, and predict the consequences of changes in a human-altered landscape.

Abstract: I tested the efficacy of aversive conditioning (AC) and conditioned taste aversion (CTA) on American black bears (Ursus americanus) in Whistler, British Columbia. Black bears subjected to 3-5 day AC programs responded by increasing their wariness toward humans, while control bears habituated. Bears were located closer to human developments during daylight hours after AC treatments. However, there was no difference in the proportion of utilization distribution that overlapped with developed areas in control or AC-treated bears. CTA may be effective for managing specific attractants that are difficult to secure from bears. Bears appeared to distinguish between baits treated with thiabendazole and baits that were not treated, but by using a protocol that caused severe illness and left the source of illness in doubt, I induced taste aversions to apples in 4 bears. Using both AC and CTA may help wildlife managers mitigate human-wildlife conflicts non-lethally more effectively.

In three papers this thesis provides contributions to our theoretical understanding of the factors driving the acceptance of black bears. The papers all work to this same end, but they each approach the topic from different perspectives. The first paper presents the relationship between the cognitive psychological variables that influence acceptance. The variables: perceived risk and benefit, internal locus of control, salient value similarity, and social trust were hypothesized to influence acceptance. Results illustrate that existing theory largely explained the observed relationships found in this research. The hypothesized model explained over 60% of the variance in acceptance. While this first paper is concerned exclusively with individuals, the second and third papers examine differences among groups of people. Within the second paper differences among the variables of interest were examined between people that fell into different classes based on knowledge scores and experience levels with bears. Results did not indicate that knowledge levels and experience with bears moderate people’s attitudes toward bears, perceived risk and benefit from bears. The third paper examines how the variables of interest in the previous papers are distributed spatially across the landscape of Ohio. More specifically, I tried to expand upon the common notions of rural and urban resident differences by examining differences between residents in urban, suburban, exurban, and rural areas. I did find some differences among residents of the different areas providing support for the existence of a social exurbia related to wildlife. Results identified that respondents from urban areas were more positive towards bears and trusting of the Ohio Division of Wildlife. Respondents from rural areas were more likely to prefer a future increase in bear populations and were also more knowledgeable about bears.

The planned widening of U.S. Highway 17 along the east boundary of Great Dismal Swamp National Wildlife Refuge (GDSNWR) and a lack of knowledge about the refuge's bear population created the need to identify potential sites for wildlife crossings and estimate the size of the refuge's bear population. I collected black bear hair in order to collect DNA samples to estimate population size, density, and sex ratio, and determine road crossing locations for black bears (Ursus americanus) in GDSNWR in southeastern Virginia and northeastern North Carolina. I also investigated bear/vehicle collisions to determine patterns of road crossing. Genetic analysis of 344 hair samples collected on 2 trapping grids identified 85 unique individuals which I used in a mark-recapture analysis. Estimated population size on the trapping grids was 105 bears (95% CI = 91-148) and average density was 0.56 bears/km². This density estimate projected over the entire Great Dismal Swamp ecosystem yielded a population estimate of 308 bears (550 km2 X 0.56 bears/km²). Similar population estimates generated by Hellgren (1988), Tredick (2005), and this study suggest a stable bear population in the Great Dismal Swamp ecosystem over a 20-year period. I erected a 2.3-kilometer long strand of barbed wire along U. S. Highway 17 to monitor road crossing patterns near the Northwest River drainage. Genetic analysis identified 6 bears (4 males, 1 female, 1 unknown) that apparently crossed the highway in a 10-month period. Five of 6 bears deposited hair in a 171-m section which included the Northwest River corridor. The 6 bears detected crossed the road at least 11 times. I investigated 10 reports of bear/vehicle collisions on the periphery of the refuge from June 2000 to May 2002. Six bears (4M:1F:1 unknown) were confirmed killed during this time period. Based on reported bear/vehicle collisions from Hellgren (1988), the Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries database, and this study, a minimum of 4 to 5 bears are struck by vehicles each year on the periphery of the refuge. I identified 2 areas of multiple bear/vehicle collisions: highway 58 on the north side of the refuge near Hampton Airport and Highway 17 on the eastern side of the refuge in the vicinity of the Northwest River corridor.

Abstract: I conducted a large-scale experiment to determine the effects of hunting on the demographics and behaviour of American black bears (Ursus americanus ). I monitored 290 bears, a subset of which were equipped with VHF and GPS radio-collars, in 2 hunted areas and an adjoining unhunted area in the boreal forest of Alberta, Canada, during a 4-year study (2002-2005). I implemented a modified before-after control-impact (BACI) design whereby bait sites for hunting were closed in 1 of the 2 hunted study areas in years 3 and 4 and adult males in an unhunted area were removed in year 3. I found population density to be the most important factor affecting population parameters and suggest that the potential effects of sexually selected infanticide (SSI), if it exists, are negligible in populations reduced below carrying capacity (K). I show that spatial and temporal movements of females with cubs were most influenced by the density of female neighbors. This differs from current interpretations of female movement where food availability and male avoidance are suggested as the main determinants. Lastly, I found that females with cubs adjusted their habitat selection in response to the probability of encountering a male and reduced their selection for high-quality habitats as the density of adult males increased. These results demonstrate that population density is the most important factor regulating behaviour and demographic parameters. Therefore, black bears can be harvested sustainably without concern for potential indirect effects such as increased infanticide and reduced productivity of females.

Noninvasive genetic sampling (NGS) is appealing because it facilitates the use of more robust, capture-recapture models to estimate population size. NGS is expensive, however, and current sub-sampling approaches, though made a priori, are made with incomplete knowledge of the ramifications. I compared model selection and population estimates from all hair samples to those from subsets of samples chosen by simulating 4 published sub-sampling approaches. I used 4 weeks of samples collected from black bears (Ursus americanus) at scented DNA hair traps during Spring 2003 and again during Spring 2004 in Hyde County, North Carolina. I found that follicle filters deleted individuals from the data set without altering sex ratio, but random sub-sampling both deleted capture histories and altered the sex ratio. Collectively, these decisions biased population estimates low and produced inconsistent model selection among 10 replications. I also conducted a 13-week study in Spring⁄Summer 2004 to investigate effects of using food and scent to lure bears to DNA hair traps. Food and scent collected twice as many hair samples as just scent, but produced similar estimates. I do not recommend using follicle filters or sub-sampling; my data suggest they may reduce NGS to an expensive population index. Instead, I recommend using only scent to lure bears, identifying all samples for gender, and genotyping just female samples. This approach estimates the female population size and, combined with ages from trapped bears and ages with fecundity data from hunter harvested bears, allows estimation of reproductive rate, which are especially valuable for population monitoring. Model Mo fit females best and model Mb fit males best for both 2003 and 2004 and produced population estimates of 223 females and 160 males. Using reproductive tract data from hunter harvested bears and Spring estimates of breeding-age females, I estimated yearly cub production as 97 cubs of each sex for a total population estimate of 577 bears in our 404.3 mi2 (1,047.2 km2) study area. My study area has averaged about 120 hunter harvested bears the past 15 years. Because I estimated the net reproductive rate was 1.0, the maximum sustainable yield appeared to be 20.7 %.

Loss of biological diversity is occurring on a global scale, with the southern Appalachians being no exception. As a result of legislation requiring all national forests to maintain viable plant and animal populations, the Forest Service incorporated use of Management Indicator Species (MIS). For an organism to be a good MIS, it must be easy to monitor, be associated with the community type or habitat it supposedly indicates, respond measurably to changes in habitat caused by management activities, and represent other species response to management activities. This study questions the designations of Ursus americanus and Plethodon jordani as MIS in Pisgah National Forest and investigates methods and indexes used in monitoring salamanders. I found a high year-to-year repeatability in sampling of salamander abundances. Single sampling efforts at sites where highly correlated with the average of two or more sampling efforts at the same sites, indicating single searches are efficient in detecting abundances of salamanders at sites. In comparing two area-constrained search methods for salamanders, I found the two methods to produce different densities, Simpson diversity indexes, and species equitability, along with different abundances of most salamander species. Search methods are therefore not equivalent in detection of salamanders. Searching at night was a more efficient sampling method for P. jordani than searches of natural cover during the day. I found P. jordani, which is designated as a MIS for woody debris special habitats, to be minimally associated with woody debris as a cover object during the day. Juvenile and small adult P. jordani preferred to use woody debris than rocks as a cover object during dry conditions. P. jordani were found to use all substrate types at night and preferred woody debris to understory, soil, and rocks. P. jordani did not use woody debris more than leaf litter or tree trunk substrates at night and their use of substrates did not differ from those of Desmognathus ocoee. Black bears and salamanders prefer similar mature forest habitats, but whether black bears serve as a good MIS for mature forest salamanders is unclear. HSIs did not show many correlations with salamanders. Reduction of the black bear habitat suitability index model showed few habitat factors important for black bears were important for salamanders. Investigating the use of an animal existing on one scale to indicate for an animal on another scale merits further study.

During 1999-2001, potential den trees and denning success of black bears was investigated on industrial forest lands and national forest lands in Virginia and West Virginia. One hundred and fifty seven potential den trees were found on five study areas, 135 on national forest lands and 22 on the industrial forest lands. Twenty-seven hollow potential den trees were found, 22 on national forest lands and 5 on industrial forest lands. Densities of potential den trees ranged from 12.5/km2 to 437.5/km2 on the national forest lands and on the industrial forest lands the densities ranged from 0-187.5/km2. There were significantly higher densities (F1, 69=5.86, P=0.0181) of potential den trees on the national forest land than on the industrial forest land. There were also significantly (F=2, 68=7.86 P=0.0008) higher densities of hollow potential den trees based on the stand age class. Denning success for females expected to have cubs was 98% (n=46) in tree dens on national forest lands and 100% (n=8) on industrial forest lands. Denning success for females expected to have cubs was 76% (n=55) in ground dens on national forest lands and 80% (n=5) in ground dens on industrial forest lands. Females expected to have cubs on the national forest lands had an overall denning success of 89% (n=80) and on industrial forest lands there was overall, 92% (n=13) denning success. Chi-square tests showed that abandonment of dens by bears was significantly higher (x2=19.02, 1df) in ground dens than in tree dens. Litter sizes were not different from national forest lands and industrial forest lands (t=-0.36, 44df, P=0.84). The mean litter sizes on the national forest lands was 2.55 (SE=0.16) cubs per litter and on the industrial forest land 2.4 (SE=0.22) cubs per litter.

For years, bear hunters have provided an unknown amount of food to black bears (Ursus americanus) in Virginia, supplementing their natural food supply. Possible effects of feeding bears can be negative, such as food conditioning and habituation to people, or positive, such as enhanced or sustained reproductive rates, especially in years of mast crop failure. In July 1999, the Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries (VDGIF) adopted a regulation recommendation that prohibited the feeding of wildlife on national forest and department-owned lands. We mailed a survey to all members of the Virginia Bear Hunters Association (VBHA, n = 459) to determine the amount of food provided to bears by bear hunters in Virginia between 1 July 1998 and 30 June 1999. Survey response rate was 52%. One hundred thirteen of 238 (47.5%) survey respondents spent over $18,000 on supplemental food in one year, averaging $163/person. One hundred twenty-eight respondents reported cumulatively providing nearly 3 million kilograms of food to bears between 1 July 1998 and 30 June 1999. Whole-shelled corn, pastries, and grease accounted for 58% of the total food by weight; however, whole-shelled corn, pastries, and bread were the 3 most common foods offered. Feeding occurred in 25 counties in Virginia, primarily during July, August, and September. Rockingham County had the highest proportion of feeders (47%), followed by Giles (15%), Augusta (14%), Craig (9%) and Montgomery (9%) Counties. Accordingly, Rockingham County received the highest proportion of food (42%), followed by Craig (8%), Giles (7%), Montgomery (6%), and Tazewell (6%) Counties. The low survey response rate, coupled with the fact that 48% of sampled nonrespondents fed bears, suggests that the total amount of annual feeding in Virginia may exceed the total determined during this study. However, the possibility of an avidity bias, in which a higher response by the more avid feeders would erroneously inflate a total estimate extrapolated to include feeding by nonrespondents, cannot be eliminated. Little work has been done pertaining to digestibilities of black bear foods, particularly those in the eastern United States. We determined digestibilities for several important eastern black bear foods, including northern red oak (Quercus rubra), white oak (Q. alba), and chestnut oak acorns (Q. prinus), squawroot (Conopholis americana), high-protein dogfood, shelled corn, and doughnuts. All diets were evaluated for nutrient content as well as percent dry matter digestibility of crude protein, ether extract (a measure of fat), and gross energy. Diets we suspected were high in fiber were additionally evaluated for neutral detergent fiber or acid detergent fiber content and digestibility. Feeding trials were conducted with 1 male and 4 female captive bears during fall 1998, and 5 female captive bears during fall 1999, at the Center for Ursid Research, Blacksburg, Virginia. Acorns and squawroot were high in fiber (45-62%) and moderate to low in protein (5-7%). Fat content was high in doughnuts (24.7) and northern red oak acorns (12%), moderate in dogfood (8.2%) and white oak acorns (4.7%), and relatively low in shelled corn, chestnut oak acorns, and squawroot (1.3-3.5%). Crude protein was high in dogfood (29%) and moderate in all other diets (4.7-8.8%). Neutral detergent fiber content was high in squawroot and all acorn types (45-62.4%). Acid detergent fiber was high in squawroot (47%) and moderate in dogfood (9%). In 1998, crude protein digestibility was high in doughnuts (86%), moderate in shelled corn and white oak acorns (50-64%), and negligible in northern red oak acorns (-39%). Ether extract digestibility was high in doughnuts, red oak acorns, and white oak acorns (80-97%), and moderate in shelled corn (67%). Fiber digestibility was tested only on northern red oak and white oak acorns, and was moderate (62% and 68%, respectively). In 1999, crude protein digestibility was high in dogfood, dogfood mixed with squawroot, and doughnuts (75-85%); moderate in shelled corn, squawroot, and white oak acorns (43-58%); and low to negligible in chestnut oak and northern red oak acorns (-13-6%). Ether extract digestibility was moderate in shelled corn (64%) and squawroot (60%), and high in all other diets (79-97%). Neutral detergent fiber digestibility was moderately high in all acorn types (54-71%). Acid detergent fiber digestibility was moderate for dogfood (66%), and associative effects occurred between the fiber in squawroot and dogfood, resulting in negative fiber digestibility in squawroot determined by difference (-19%). A luxury not always realized in wildlife management is the ability to investigate possible effects of management or policy changes prior to their employment. The amount of food provided to bears by bear hunters in Virginia may have been more substantial than previously believed, and likely provided bears with a high energy, stable food source that supplemented their natural food supply. We did not have the opportunity to study the effects of removing that food source on public lands prior to the regulation change; however, the opportunistic feeding strategy of bears, coupled with sufficient mast production at the time of the regulation change, likely softened any negative effects that may have occurred as a result of the removal of supplemental food as a regular food source for some bears.

We measured black bear (Ursus americanus) reproduction and cub survival during 1994 - 1998, and 1995 - 1999, respectively, in the George Washington and Jefferson National Forests in Virginia to determine age-specific and overall cub production and cub survival. We observed females in estrus between 6 June and 22 August; the mean date of estrus was 17 July. Ages of primiparity ranged between 3 and 5 years with an average of 3.36 years (n=11, SE=0.15). Average litter size for 1995 - 1998 was 2.32 cubs/litter (SE=0.11, n=53) and 85.7% of available females ≥ age 4 (those not accompanied by cubs) reproduced in a given den season. We monitored 98 (48M:50F) black bear cubs equipped with expandable radio-collars (Higgins 1997) or radio transmitters implanted subcutaneously between 1995 and 1999 to estimate cub survival. Kaplan-Meier staggered entry analysis provided 306-day survival rates for 82 cubs. The survival estimates for males and females were 73% (0.49, 0.96) and 91% (0.80, 1.00), respectively. The overall 306-day survival rate for all cubs was 81% (0.67,0.94) using Kaplan-Meier and 76% (0.63, 0.92) using Heisey-Fuller (Mayfield) methods. We also evaluated the utility of radio transmitters implanted subcutaneously in 42 (21M:21F) wild black bear (Ursus americanus) cubs from 2 study areas in Virginia between 1996 and 1999 to monitor first year cub survival. More than 64% (27 of 42) of the implants fell out prematurely (2-198 days), and 16.6% (7 of 42) failed for unknown reasons. Less than 5% (2 of 42) of these cubs denned wearing failed implants, and 9.5% (4 of 42) experienced mortality less than 1 month after implant surgery. About 9.5% (4 of 42) of implanted black bear cubs wore working transmitters through to the following den season.

Effort and success of Virginia's bear houndsmen were determined through field and mail surveys, and hunter diaries. The number of houndsmen per chase ranged from 5 to 12, hounds ranged from 6 to 11, and each chase lasted 2 to 6 hours. Second chases of the day lasted 2 to 3 hours and 3 to 10 hounds were used. Fifty-three to 74% of all first attempts resulted in a chase and 24% to 44% of these bears treed. A 2nd chase occurred in 11% to 96% of attempts and 9% to 50% of bears treed. Five to 17% of the 1st bears and 13% to 21% of 2nd bears were harvested. Field surveys found virtually no differences in hunting effort or success between seasons, study areas, and years. The hunter diary appears to be the most reliable means of sampling hunter effort and success. The applicability of Schroeder's physical condition estimate (PCR) was tested on data from Maine's black bear population. Bears exposed to poor hard mast had lower PCR's than bears exposed to good hard mast (P = 0.009). PCR and body weights of adult female black bears in Virginia exposed to hunting did not differ from those not hunted (P = 0.09). Annual adult female, adult male, and cub survival and reproductive rates in the hunted population were numerically similar to those in the non hunted populations. Five radio collared females were experimentally chased by hounds. The chases,on average, lasted 0.9 hours and 43% of bears treed. The average total home range for 3 of the bears was 17.8 km². The area used by 2 of the 3 bears pursued by hounds did not differ from their total home range (P 3 0.05) based on the MRPP test. The area covered by 3 of the 5 pursued bears was 5.6%, 11.8%, and 79.7% of their home range.

Understanding energetic potential of habitat patches is important for management designed to provide adequate habitat for wildlife species. Great Smoky Mountains National Park (GSMNP) has a high density of black bears that have been studied intensively from 1968-1997; habitats within the Park are relatively undisturbed, and similar vegetative cover types can be found throughout the southern Appalachian mountains. Black bear reproduction in the Park has been correlated to hard mast production, however little work has been done to assess the importance of soft mast. Geographic Information System (GIS) based habitat use models have been developed for bears in the Park, yet the importance of foods in determining habitat selection, and the possibility of sexual habitat segregation due to food availability have not yet been determined. The primary objectives of the study included estimation of the location, timing, and amount of caloric production by 19 important black bear foods and determination of the significance of caloric production by mast type, season, overstory vegetation type, and plant species. Secondary objectives were to test for correlation of bear habitat use with estimated caloric production from mast, and to test for sexual segregation of habitats based on caloric production. This study was limited to the northwest quadrant of GSMNP during 1995.