Search

The Arab army, by 637, was poised to destroy what remained of the Persian Empire and further expand the new Islamic Empire. Begun in 632 when nomadic Arab tribesmen strayed from Islam at the death of Muḥammad, the early military campaigns waged by the first caliph and Muḥammad’s close friend, Abū Bakr , successfully subdued the errant tribes and reenforced their faithfulness to Islam. To keep the tribes faithful, Abū Bakr continued the military campaigns and moved his forces northward into Byzantine and Persian lands. They met with little resistance and were able to subdue the subjects of both empires easily.

The Islamic Golden age refers to a time ranging from 622 C.E. to 1258 C.E., during which the Middle East made incredible advances in mathematics, philosophy, science, and medicine under the rule of various Islamic leaders. Several Middle Eastern cities, including Baghdad, Jerusalem, and Cairo became intellectual and cultural centers affluent and influential enough to rival Rome. The Islamic Golden Age was brought to an end by repeated crusades from the Christian Byzantine Empire, a crushing defeat by the Mongolians, and from infighting between the religious and political leaders of the time.

ՙAbd Allāh ibn al-ՙAbbās (ahb-dool-AH-ihb-uhn-uhl-uhb-BAHS) was cousin and companion to the prophet Muḥammad and ancestor of the ՙAbbāsid Dynasty, as well as the first to interpret, or provide an exegesis of, the Qur՚n. His mother Ummu՚l-Fadl Lubabe, who had accepted Islam, brought him up Muslim.

Many centuries before the mission of the Prophet Muḥammad (c. 570-632 c.e.), Syria and Mesopotamia (now Iraq) were important seats of trade, culture, and politics. These two areas affected the different faiths and civilizations in the interior of the Arabian Peninsula, largely through trading relations that, in biblical times, were associated with the frankincense route from Yemen. Rare commodities found their way from what the Romans called Arabia Felix (“well-blessed” or “happy” Arabia), and valuable goods from the east, principally from India and China, created prosperous commercial dealings for Syria and Mesopotamia. Historically, these areas were often dominated by powerful imperial overlords who vied for control over the cities at the ends of the trade routes such as Damascus or the ancient cities located where the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers flow closest to each other (a site that later became Baghdad).

Criticism of Islam, the religion of the Muslim people, began in the early days of the faith and has continued into the twenty-first century. Some of the main criticisms involve the founder of Islam, the prophet Muhammad (or Mohammad), and the religion’s central holy text, the Koran (or Quran). Sharia, or Islamic law, has also faced heavy criticism for its harsh punishments and restrictions on women, LGBTQ people, and non-Muslims. Muslim leaders and factions who use extreme interpretations of their holy texts have adopted violent methods, including war and terrorism, to spread Islam and silence those of other belief systems. Defenders of Islam note that holy texts are subject to many interpretations, and when correctly understood within context, the Koran and other texts actually promote justice, peace, and cooperation rather than hostility or oppression.

Within just a few years of the death of the Prophet Muhammad, the founder of Islam, in 632 CE, the rapidly growing community of Muslim believers fractured into two distinct factions, called Sunni and Shia. The rivalry and relationship between these factions have persisted into the twenty-first century as primary forces driving Muslim history, and they show every sign of continuing their influence. The original conflict causing the split between Sunni and Shia Muslims was the argument over the succession of political and religious authority after the death of Muhammad. Over the centuries, however, the Sunni-Shia divide has come to subsume many other ethnic, national, racial, and ideological divisions within the worldwide community of believers.

Within just a few years of the death of the Prophet Muhammad, the founder of Islam, the rapidly growing community of Muslim believers fractured into two distinct factions, called Shia and Sunni. The rivalry and relationship between these factions have persisted into the twenty-first century as primary forces driving Muslim history, and they show every sign of continuing their influence for the foreseeable future. The original conflict causing the split between Shia and Sunni Muslims was over the succession of political and religious authority after the death of Muhammad. Over the centuries, however, the Shia-Sunni divide has come to subsume many other ethnic, national, racial, and ideological divisions within the worldwide community of believers.