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A study involving 7 experiment stations evaluated the effects of a second iron injection adminis- tered before weaning on growth and hematological mea- sures of pigs.

Selected biometric technologies such as iris, face, gait, voice, etc. are widely used for the recognition of individuals. This paper presents a biometric technology perception by members of staff from government agencies in Nigeria, namely: the National Identity Management Commission and Joint Admission Matriculation Board, on the use of selected technology for ethnicity recognition. The study was conducted using the quantitative method. Data were collected from the staff of selected agencies. Fingerprint, facial, and iris biometrics were selected for this experiment. Using the modified Technology Acceptance Model framework, results from the experiment showed the perception of staff on selected technologies in ethnicity recognition. Results show that technology enhanced job effectiveness, the majority of respondents agreed that fingerprint and facial biometrics would improve ethnicity detection; hence they were a popular choice for ethnicity recognition. The study showed that determining ethnicity from iris biometric would be difficult as the majority do not see the iris as a means of identifying a particular ethnic group. Five different hypotheses were tested to determine compatibility, ease of use, and attitude towards use (ATU) of the selected technology. Results showed that selected biometrics can effectively determine an ethnic group with a significance value at 0.000.

Beginning teachers should be adequately prepared for their roles as propagators of sustainable development core messages. Using a mixed method approach, this study assessed current knowledge, perceptions and readiness of beginning teachers for sustainability education. Two hundred (200) randomly selected final-year undergraduates from the Faculty of Education of the Nigerian University participated in the study. Results revealed gaps in the awareness and understanding of sustainability concepts and issues among the respondents. However, a high level of interest in handling the core issues was expressed. The respondents differed according to gender and age, but there were no significant differences according to mode of entry. The study recommended infusion of sustainability concepts in teacher education curricula and promotion of sustainable development issues through students' activities within and outside university campuses to address knowledge gap and sustain interests in sustainability education among beginning teachers.

The same experimental protocol was used in 4 institutions to evaluate the impact of non-phytate phosphorus (nPP) concentration in the starter diet on regression method-derived ileal P digestibility of soybean meal (SBM) during the subsequent grower phase. A total of 1,536 Ross 308 male broiler chickens on d 0 post hatching were allotted to 2 pre-experimental starter diets that contained 3.5 or 4.5 g nPP/kg (96 replicate cages per diet, 8 birds per cage) for 18 d. Subsequently, 576 birds from each starter diet were selected and allocated to 3 experimental semi-purified grower diets containing 400, 510, or 620 g SBM/kg (32 replicate cages per diet, 6 birds per cage) for 3 d until collection of ileal digesta. Statistical analysis was conducted as a randomized complete block design with the starter period as whole plot and the grower period as split-plot. The only significant 2-way interaction was between grower diet and experimental institution (P< 0.05) on BW gain and gain to feed ratio. The main effect of institution and grower diet impacted (P< 0.05) feed intake, the digestibility of DM, P, and calcium, and disappearance of inositol hexakisphosphate (InsP6) in the grower diets. Birds fed the 3.5 g nPP/kg starter diet had lower (P< 0.05) BW gain and feed intake during the grower period, but presented higher (P< 0.05) digestibility of P and disappearance of InsP6compared with the birds that were fed the 4.5 g nPP/kg starter diet. Regression method-derived ileal P digestibility of SBM was determined to be 46 or 42% for the respective 3.5 or 4.5 g nPP/kg pre-experimental starter diet and was not affected by the nPP concentration or by the institution. In conclusion, the experimental protocol used in the current study resulted in similar estimates across multiple institutions and is thus endorsed for future application in studies that aim to expand the database of digestible P content in plant source feed ingredients.

Phosphorus (P) is an integral part of diet formulation for broiler chickens as P is required for various biochemical processes essential to life. A study was designed to examine the additivity of apparent ileal digestibility (AID) and standardized ileal digestibility (SID) of P in mixed diets containing corn and soybean meal (SBM) with or without phytase supplementation. Birds were fed a commercial starter diet from day 0 to 21 after hatching and then allotted to 7 dietary treatments in a randomized complete block design with the BW as a blocking factor. Four semipurified diets were prepared to contain corn or SBM as the sole source of P with or without the addition of phytase at 1,000 phytase units/kg of diet. Two mixed diets were also prepared to contain corn and SBM with or without the addition of phytase at 1,000 phytase units/kg diet. A P-free diet (PFD) was formulated to determine the basal ileal endogenous loss of P. There were 16 replicate cages of the PFD and 8 replicate cages of the 6 experimental diets, with 8 birds per replicate cage for a total of 512 birds. Diets were fed for 3 d. The ileal digesta of birds were collected from the distal two-thirds of the ileum on day 24 after hatching. The SID of P in corn and SBM were 52.2 and 65.4%, respectively (SEM = 1.37). The addition of phytase improved (P < 0.05) both the AID and SID of P in the corn, SBM, and mixed diets. The determined AID or SID in the corn and SBM with or without phytase was used to predict the AID or SID in the mixed diets. There were no differences between the predicted and determined digestibility values in the mixed diets for either AID or SID of P and thus additive. Phytase supplementation of the mixed diet did not influence the additivity of AID or SID. In conclusion, the AID or SID of P in the corn and SBM was additive in the mixed diets containing corn and SBM with or without the addition of phytase.

Growth performance, nutrient digestibility, intestinal health, and endogenous enzyme secretion responses to dietary α-amylase supplementation during 4 growth phases of broiler chickens fed corn–soybean meal–based diets were evaluated in the present study. A total of 1,136 male broiler chicks were assigned at day 0 after hatching to 8 treatments in a 2 × 4 factorial arrangement. There were 2 dietary levels of α-amylase supplementation of 0 or 80 kilo-Novo alpha amylase units per kg diet and 4 posthatching growth phases of day 0 to 11, day 11 to 21, day 21 to 42, or day 42 to 56 in a randomized complete block design. Each treatment comprised 8 replicate pens, with either 25 (day 0–11), 20 (day 11–21), 16 (day 21–42), or 10 (day 42–56) birds per pen. Body weight gain and feed efficiency of birds improved (P < 0.01) with α-amylase supplementation. There were main effects of α-amylase, growth phase, and interaction (P < 0.01) on apparent ileal digestibility (AID) of starch. This ranged from 0.8% during day 11 to 21 to 2.8% during day 0 to 11 after hatching. The total tract retention of starch increased (P < 0.05) with amylase supplementation but was not different across growth phases. Amylase supplementation increased (P < 0.05) AID of gross energy, AME (kcal/kg), and AMEn (kcal/kg). Villus height in the jejunal tissue was increased (P < 0.01) by α-amylase supplementation. During day 11 to 21 after hatching, the viscosity of jejunal digesta and pancreatic amylase activity increased (P < 0.01) with amylase supplementation. In conclusion, dietary amylase supplementation improved growth performance, apparent nutrient digestibility, and digestive enzyme activity of broiler chickens fed a corn–soybean diet. The study indicates that the growth phase of birds may affect response to exogenous amylase.

Dietary starch is the major energy source for broiler chickens; therefore, relevant information on its intestinal utilization is important. The present study was designed to evaluate intestinal starch and energy digestibility of broiler chickens fed diets supplemented with α-amylase. A total of 240 day-0 male broiler chicks were randomly assigned to 3 nutritionally adequate corn-soybean–based experimental diets comprising 3 levels of α-amylase supplementation (0, 80, or 160 KNU/kg diet). Each treatment comprised 8 replicate cages of 10 birds each. At day 21 after hatching, digesta was collected from 4 intestinal sites: the anterior jejunum (AJ), posterior jejunum (PJ), anterior ileum (AI), and posterior ileum. Increasing α-amylase supplementation linearly improved (P < 0.01) overall BW gain and feed efficiency of the birds. There were linear and quadratic (P < 0.01) responses of increasing α-amylase supplementation on starch and energy digestibility at the PJ and AI. The total tract digestibility of starch increased (P < 0.05) with increasing α-amylase supplementation. Starch disappearance and digestible energy (kcal/kg) linearly increased (P < 0.01) with digesta flow from the AJ to PJ as dietary α-amylase supplementation increased. There were linear (P < 0.01) and quadratic (P < 0.05) effects of increasing α-amylase supplementation on the villus height in the jejunum. The viscosity of the jejunal digesta decreased (P < 0.05) with increasing dietary α-amylase supplementation. The results from this study showed the efficacy of exogenous amylase in improving growth performance and starch and energy digestibility in broiler chickens. Furthermore, the digestibility of starch and energy and the impact of the exogenous amylase were higher at the PJ than other intestinal sites.

Trypsin inhibitors (TI) resident in soybeans affects protein utilization. While heat treatment influences residual TI, it simultaneously affects the structure and solubility of the soybean proteins and confounds any response to exogenous proteases. Using purified TI, the effect of exogenous protease to TI can be dissociated from changes in the soybean protein. Thus, the current study was designed to evaluate the growth performance and protein utilization responses of broiler chickens to purified TI and exogenous protease. Soybean meal (SBM) was preanalyzed for basal TI (2,996 TIU/g SBM), formulated into nutritionally adequate experimental diets to contain 1,033 TIU/g diet, and purified TI was added at 9,000 TIU/g diet. A total of 320 Cobb-500 broiler chicks were allocated to 4 diets, each with 8 replicate cages and 10 birds per replicate. The experimental diets were arranged as a 2 × 2 factorial with factors being dietary TI (1,033 or 10,033 TIU/g) and exogenous protease (0 or 15,000 PROT/kg). On day 7, 14, and 21 posthatching, protease supplementation improved the BW gain (P < 0.01) and gain to feed ratio (P < 0.05) of birds. On day 14 and 21 posthatching, the relative weight of pancreas increased (P < 0.05) with added TI but was reduced (P < 0.001) with protease supplementation. Apparent ileal digestibility of all amino acids, except methionine, decreased (P < 0.001) with added TI but increased (P < 0.05) with protease supplementation. Jejunal MUC-2 was downregulated (P < 0.01) and SCL7A-2 was upregulated (P < 0.05) by protease supplementation. Duodenal trypsin and chymotrypsin activities reduced (P < 0.05) with added TI but increased (P < 0.01) with protease supplementation. Exogenous protease produced longer villi (P < 0.05) and deeper crypts (P < 0.01) in the jejunal tissue. In conclusion, dietary addition of purified TI negatively affects nutrient utilization by broiler chickens. Furthermore, the study showed that the efficacy of the exogenous protease might be independent of dietary TI concentration.

A broiler chicken study was conducted for 42 D to evaluate their responses to 3 commercially available microbial phytases. Growth performance, nutrient digestibility, and bone mineralization at days 21 and 42 posthatching were used as parameters of evaluation. The study was a randomized complete block design with 12 treatments, 8 replicate pens, and 25 birds per pen. Treatments included a positive control (PC), a negative control (NC) with crude protein (CP), nonphytate phosphorus (P), and calcium (Ca) reduced by 18, 1.5, and 1.8 g/kg, respectively; the NC + 4 levels of phytase A (250, 500, 750, 1,000 FTU/kg), 3 levels of phytase B (250, 500, 750 FTU/kg), and 3 levels of phytase C (500, 750, 1,000 FTU/kg). Broilers fed the NC diet had reduced (P < 0.05) performance and digestibility measures at days 21 and 42 relative to the PC. All phytase enzymes improved (P < 0.05) BW, gain, feed efficiency, and tibia ash weight and percent. Inclusion of phytase at the highest levels improved (P< 0.05) tibia ash weight by an average of 18.5 and 22% at days 21 and 42, respectively, over the NC. Phytase A linearly improved (P < 0.05) the apparent ileal digestibility (AID) of DM, Ca, P, copper, and sodium at day 21, and the AID of energy, nitrogen, and all amino acid (AA) digestibility at day 42 posthatching. Phytase B linearly (P < 0.05) improved BW gain and feed efficiency of birds at day 21 and quadratically improved (P < 0.05) the AID of nitrogen and all AA in birds at day 42. Supplementation of birds fed the NC with phytase C linearly improved (P < 0.05) the BW gain, feed intake, feed efficiency, and AID of DM, energy, nitrogen, all AA, and all minerals except manganese at day 42. In conclusion, all 3 phytase products improved the growth performance, nutrient and mineral digestibility, and bone mineralization of birds fed diets deficient in nitrogen, Ca, and P similar to or more than birds fed diet adequate in P and CP.

This experiment was conducted to investigate the effect of dietary chitosan oligosaccharide (COS) on growth performance, nutrient digestibility, jejunal morphology, gene expression, and plasma antioxidant enzymes in male broiler chickens under experimentally induced stress via in-feed dexamethasone (DEX). On day 3 after hatching, male broiler chicks were assigned to 2 diets supplemented with COS at 0 or 1 g/kg in a randomized complete block design and fed to day 27 after hatching. Birds were pooled within each diet (0 or 1 g/kg COS) to equalize the average BW and fed 2 diets supplemented with 0 or 1 g/kg DEX, within each dietary COS, from day 20 to 27 after hatching. This resulted in a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement of treatments with 2 levels each of COS and DEX, 8 replicate cages of 7 birds per cage. On day 27 after hatching, birds were weighed and euthanized, and samples were collected. Dietary COS decreased (P < 0.05) DEX-induced effects (interaction; P < 0.05) on BW, BW gain, and gain:feed. Dietary COS supplementation attenuated the DEX effects (interaction; P < 0.05) on villus height, crypt depth, villus height to crypt depth ratio, and ileal digestibility of dry matter and energy. The DEX-induced effect of relative mRNA expression of jejunal mucosa IL-6, IL-10, and claudin-1 was reduced by dietary COS supplementation (interaction; P < 0.05). Responses (interaction; P < 0.05) in the activity of plasma superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase to COS and DEX were similar to those observed with the relative mRNA expression. Chitosan oligosaccharide supplementation increased (P < 0.05) the mRNA expression of IL-8 and occludin. In conclusion, dietary COS decreased the DEX-induced effect by improving growth performance, nutrient digestibility, jejunal morphology, gene expression, and plasma antioxidant enzymes in broiler chickens. This implies that dietary COS may be useful for ameliorating the negative effect of stress on gut health in broiler chickens.

A study was conducted to evaluate the P digestibility in soybean meal (SBM) using the regression method with different basal diet that varied in protein sources. The treatments were organized in a 4 × 3 factorial arrangement, where 4 semipurified diets were formulated with varying source of protein (no protein supplement, or added casein, potato protein isolate (PPI), or dried egg albumen (DEA) at 60 g/kg) and 3 dietary levels of SBM (290, 370, or 450 g/kg). The study was a randomized complete block design with 8 replicate cages of 6 birds per cage. The experimental diets were fed from d 19 to 22 posthatching, excreta samples were collected from d 20 to 22, and ileal digesta samples were collected on d 22. Data were analyzed as a 2-way ANOVA using the GLM procedure. The digestibility and total tract utilization of DM, P, Ca, and N were affected by protein source (P< 0.05). Diets with casein presented the highest (P< 0.05) digestibility of N. Increasing SBM level in all dietary protein sources reduced (P< 0.001) the digestibility and total tract utilization of DM. The regression-derived ileal digestibility of P in SBM was 57.8 (SE = 3.78), 63.2 (SE = 5.02), 58.8 (SE = 4.53), and 35.3% (SE = 5.27) for diets without protein supplement, with casein, PPI, or DEA, respectively; the corresponding P retention were 52.2 (SE = 11.09), 83.4 (SE = 14.89), 42.6 (SE = 15.88), and 51.9% (SE = 14.67). The protein source affected (P< 0.05) the slope and intercept of P digestibility in SBM. A comparison of the coefficients using confidence intervals demonstrated that the ileal digestibility of P in SBM determined in diets with DEA was lower (P< 0.05) than the other protein sources, which did not differ from one another. These results indicate that the selection of dietary protein supplements may affect P digestibility assays using the regression method.

The nasal route has routinely been used in the local delivery of drugs, however with innovations in nanotechnology, there has been increased interest in exploring this route more for systemic, and brain/CNS delivery. This is because this route is safe, non-invasive, and medications can be self-administered to achieve rapid therapeutic drug levels with minimal doses. Polymeric nanoparticles (NPs) such as PLGA NPs have a wide range of applications in drug delivery, due to their large surface area and surface modification of the NPs with targeting ligands and polymers which enhances drug delivery, cellular uptake, and bioavailability at target sites. This review covers recent research on the use of PLGA nanoparticles in the delivery of small molecule drugs and macromolecules via the nasal route. It covers some background information about the challenges in delivering drugs via this route. The most common targeting ligands and polymer coatings used in the surface modification of PLGA NPs are highlighted. Finally, recent patents and clinical trials of PLGA NPs in nasal drug delivery are also covered.

Phytase is of importance to the poultry industry because of its ability to hydrolyze phytate and release phosphorus (P) for use by poultry. However, the effect of age on phytase efficacy is not fully understood. A total of 864 day-old broiler chicks were used to investigate the effect of age and feeding length on phytase efficacy using growth performance, mineral utilization, and tibia ash as response criteria of evaluation. The experiment was arranged as a 3 × 2 × 2 factorial in a randomized complete block design with 3 diets including; a positive control (PC; 0.4% non-phytate P (nPP)), a negative control (NC; 0.2% nPP) and a NC diet supplemented with phytase at 2,000 FYT/kg; 2 ages (i.e., days 14 and 22); and 2 feeding lengths (i.e., 2 and 5 D) with 8 replicates each. Birds fed the NC had decreased (P< 0.01) body weight gain and feed efficiency compared with birds fed the PC regardless of age or feeding length. Similarly, birds fed the phytase-supplemented diet had improved (P< 0.01) performance as compared to birds fed the NC regardless of age. There were no significant differences in P utilization between birds fed for 2 to 14 D or 22 D and birds fed for 5 D to both ages. However, phytase was more efficacious at day 14 than day 22 when mineral utilization was considered because the super dose of phytase elicited greater response in birds fed the phytase supplemented diet for 2 D until day 14. In contrast, percentage tibia ash improved (P< 0.01) in birds fed phytase supplemented diet for 5 D at both ages as compared with birds fed for 2 D. In conclusion, testing phytase products, even at high doses, for 2 D during the second week in the life cycle of broiler chicks, can be recommended from the results of this study.

Hepatoblastoma (HB), the most common pediatric primary liver neoplasm, shows nuclear localization of β-catenin and yes-associated protein 1 (YAP1) in almost 80% of the cases. Co-expression of constitutively active S127A-YAP1 and ΔN90 deletion-mutant β-catenin (YAP1–ΔN90-β-catenin) causes HB in mice. Because heterogeneity in downstream signaling is being identified owing to mutational differences even in the β-catenin gene alone, we investigated if co-expression of point mutants of β-catenin (S33Y or S45Y) with S127A-YAP1 led to similar tumors as YAP1–ΔN90-β-catenin. Co-expression of S33Y/S45Y–β-catenin and S127A-YAP1 led to activation of Yap and Wnt signaling and development of HB, with 100% mortality by 13 to 14 weeks. Co-expression with YAP1–S45Y/S33Y-β-catenin of the dominant-negative T-cell factor 4 or dominant-negative transcriptional enhanced associate domain 2, the respective surrogate transcription factors, prevented HB development. Although histologically similar, HB in YAP1–S45Y/S33Y-β-catenin, unlike YAP1–ΔN90-β-catenin HB, was glutamine synthetase (GS) positive. However, both ΔN90–β-catenin and point-mutant β-catenin comparably induced GS-luciferase reporter in vitro. Finally, using a previously reported 16-gene signature, it was shown that YAP1–ΔN90-β-catenin HB tumors exhibited genetic similarities with more proliferative, less differentiated, GS-negative HB patient tumors, whereas YAP1–S33Y/S45Y-β-catenin HB exhibited heterogeneity and clustered with both well-differentiated GS-positive and proliferative GS-negative patient tumors. Thus, we demonstrate that β-catenin point mutants can also collaborate with YAP1 in HB development, albeit with a distinct molecular profile from the deletion mutant, which may have implications in both biology and therapy.

The global COVID-19 pandemic impacted pharmacy education and changed the pharmacists’ scope of practice at the federal and state levels. Based on the Amended Public Readiness and Emergency Preparedness Act, pharmacists were authorized to provide essential services, including testing, treatments, and immunizations at various practice settings. Specifically, the United States Food and Drug Administration issued emergency use authorization for several medications, vaccines, and medical devices. The pandemic also affected the regulatory landscape for pharmacists, pharmacy education, access to care, and delivery of pharmacy services in-person and through telehealth. The pandemic’s specific impact on pharmacy education heightened awareness of the well-being of the Academy. This commentary will highlight the impact of COVID-19 on both pharmacy education and practice. It will also provide strategies that educators, researchers, and practitioners can take into future research and action to help promote advocacy and unity among pharmacy organizations.

Two experiments were conducted to determine the Ca digestibility of limestone and dicalcium phosphate (DCP) and if values for Ca digestibility are additive in mixed diets for pigs. In Exp. 1, 48 barrows with an average initial BW of 19.2 ± 1.1 kg were assigned to 1 of 6 dietary treatments in a 2 × 3 factorial arrangement of 2 Ca sources, including limestone or DCP, and 3 dietary Ca concentrations of 0.54, 0.74, or 0.94%. Diets were fed for a 5-d adjustment period followed by a total collection period of 5 d with chromic oxide and ferric oxide as markers to determine the initiation and termination of fecal collection, respectively. Results indicated that the increased dietary Ca concentration linearly increased (P< 0.01) Ca intake, digested Ca, and retained Ca but did not affect the apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of Ca or Ca retention of intake (%). The ATTD of P and P retention of intake were linearly increased (P< 0.05) as dietary Ca and P increased. In Exp. 2, 72 barrows with an average initial BW of 20.8 ± 1.3 kg were assigned to 1 of 9 dietary treatments in a 3 × 3 factorial arrangement of 3 Ca sources, including limestone, DCP, or the mixture of the 2 at a ratio of 1:1, and dietary Ca concentrations of 0.40, 0.50, or 0.60%. Feeding and sample collection procedures were as in Exp. 1. The results also showed that increased Ca concentration linearly increased (P< 0.001) Ca intake, fecal Ca output, and Ca absorbed but did not affect the ATTD of Ca within each Ca source. The average ATTD were 66.46, 70.34, and 69.32% for the limestone, DCP, and mixed diets, respectively. By regressing daily digested Ca against daily Ca intake, the true total tract digestibility (TTTD) of Ca was determined to be 70.06, 76.42, and 73.72% for the limestone, DCP, and mixed diets, respectively. The predicted TTTD for Ca in the mixed diets of limestone and DCP was calculated to be 72.67% based on the Ca contribution coefficient of 0.59 for limestone and 0.41 for DCP. The predicted Ca TTTD (72.67%) in the mixed diets was not different from the Ca TTTD (73.72%) determined using the regression method. It is concluded that although the ATTD of limestone and DCP were not affected by the Ca concentration in the diet, TTTD is recommended for evaluation of Ca digestibility because of its additivity in a mixed diet.

The objective of the current study was to determine if garlic-derived diallyl disulfide (DADS) and diallyl trisulfide (DATS) could mitigate oxidative and endotoxin stress, using an intestinal porcine epithelial cell (IPEC-J2) model. The experiment was arranged as a 2 × 2 × 2 factorial of DADS + DATS (0 or 18 µM), pro-oxidant stressor (hydrogen peroxide at 0 or 100 µM), and endotoxin stressor (lipopolysaccharide [LPS] at 0 or 10 µg/mL) with 8 replicates per treatment. Cells were incubated with DADS + DATS for 18 h, LPS for 6 h, then with hydrogen peroxide for 3 h. Gene expression was measured by RT-PCR for cytokines, interleukin 8 (IL-8) and tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), and tight junction proteins, claudin 1 (CL-1), occludin (OC), and zonula occludens 1 (ZO-1). Trans-epithelial electrical resistance (TEER), the antioxidant enzyme catalase, and apical secretion of IL-8 protein into the incubation medium was also measured. There was an increase (P< 0.01) in TNF-α and IL-8 gene expression due to LPS, although there was no effect of hydrogen peroxide or DADS + DATS. Furthermore, there was a tendency for an increase (P= 0.08) in ZO-1 gene expression due to DADS + DATS. Treatment with DADS + DATS and hydrogen peroxide did not affect TEER, although there was a decrease (P= 0.02) in TEER with LPS incubation. Treatment of cells with hydrogen peroxide reduced catalase activity (P< 0.01), which was restored with pre-incubation of DADS + DATS (P< 0.10). There was an increase (P< 0.01) in IL-8 secretion due to LPS, which was further augmented (P< 0.01) by pre-incubation with DADS + DATS. Based on the results from the current study, DADS + DATS can ameliorate oxidative effects of hydrogen peroxide, as well as alter IL-8 secretion in LPS-treated IPEC-J2 cells.

Compounds in garlic have been shown to contain anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and immune modulatory properties that may be able to mitigate the effects of nursery pig stressors. The objective of the current experiment was to determine if oral gavage of garlic-derived diallyl disulfide (DADS) and diallyl trisulfide (DATS) could mitigate the effects of a 24-h postweaning feed + water deprivation event in nursery pigs. Pigs (6.0 ± 0.05 kg and 21 d old) were allotted to 4 treatments in a randomized complete block design at weaning with 8 replicate pens per treatment that consisted of with or without a 24-h postweaning feed + water deprivation event and with or without an oral gavage containing 3.6 mg DADS + DATS/kg BW. Growth performance and morbidity were recorded throughout the experiment, and on 1, 6, and 21 d after weaning, 1 pig per pen was selected, blood was collected, the pig was euthanized, and a segment of the distal ileum was subsequently excised for morphological and gene and protein expression measurements. Mucosal gene expression was conducted by reverse transcription PCR for immune, antioxidant, and cellular integrity markers. Furthermore, activity of mucosal superoxide dismutase was measured by colorimetric assay. Immediately following the feed + water deprivation event, there was a decrease (P< 0.01) in growth performance and an increase (P= 0.01) in serum cortisol. The feed + water deprivation event tended (P= 0.10) to decrease ileal villus height and supplementation of DADS + DATS by oral gavage increased (P= 0.03) villus height 1 d after weaning. Supplementation of DADS + DATS by oral gavage decreased (P= 0.03) and tended to decrease (P= 0.08) gene expression of SODon 6 and 21 d after weaning, respectively. Furthermore, at 1 d after weaning, ileal mucosa SOD activity was decreased (P= 0.01) by the feed + water deprivation and increased (P= 0.04) by oral supplementation of DADS + DATS. Expression of the tight junction genes ZO-1and OCwere reduced (P≤ 0.05) due to the feed + water deprivation event 1 d after weaning. Results from the current study show that an acute feed + water deprivation event can impact growth performance, intestinal characteristics, and antioxidant status in nursery pigs, which can be partially mitigated by oral supplementation of garlic compounds DADS + DATS.

The aim of this study was to determine the apparent ileal digestibility (AID) and the standardized ileal digestibility (SID) of CP and AA in full-fat soybean (FFSB), solvent-extracted soybean meal containing 430 g/kg CP (SBM-43), solvent-extracted soybean meal containing 470 g/kg CP (SBM-47), and peanut flour (PNF) fed to broiler chickens and pigs and to compare the digestibility of CP and AA between broiler chickens and pigs. Four diets were prepared to contain FFSB, SBM-43, SBM-47, and PNF as the sole source of N. A N-free diet was formulated to estimate the basal ileal endogenous losses of CP and AA for broiler chickens and pigs. In Exp. 1, a total of four hundred sixteen 21-d-old male broiler chickens (922.1 ± 79.9 g initial BW) were assigned to 5 experimental diets in a randomized complete block design with BW as a blocking factor. After 5 d of adaptation, ileal digesta samples were collected after birds were euthanized by CO2asphyxiation. In Exp. 2, twenty barrows (62.0 ± 6.9 kg initial BW) surgically fitted with T-cannulas at the distal ileum were allotted to 5 experimental diets with 2 consecutive 7-d experimental periods. After 5 d of adaptation, ileal digesta samples were collected at d 6 and 7. For statistical analysis, treatments were considered a 2 × 4 factorial arrangement with effects of species and experimental diets (Exp. 1 vs. Exp. 2). There were no interactions between species and diets for the digestibility of CP and AA except for Cys (P< 0.01). The AID of CP and indispensable AA in pigs were greater (P< 0.01) than in broiler chickens. In both broiler chickens and pigs, the AID of CP and indispensable AA in SBM-47 were greater (P< 0.05) than in FFSB, and the AID of Lys in PNF was the least (P< 0.05) among ingredients. The SID of CP and indispensable AA in pigs were greater (P< 0.05) than in broiler chickens except for Trp. In both broiler chickens and pigs, the SID of Lys in PNF was the least (P< 0.05) among ingredients. In broiler chickens, the SID of CP, Ile, Leu, Thr, Trp, and Val in FFSB were less (P< 0.05) than that in SBM-43, SBM-47, and PNF. In pigs, the SID of Arg, Ile, Leu, Met, Phe, and Val in FFSB were less (P< 0.05) than in SBM-43, SBM-47, and PNF. In conclusion, the digestibility of CP and most AA were less in broiler chickens than in pigs, but the pattern of differences in the AA digestibility among ingredients was similar between broiler chickens and pigs.

A study was conducted to investigate the effect of dietary CP levels on ileal P digestion in growing pigs. A total of 18 ileal-cannulated pigs (44.2 ± 3.2 kg initial BW) were used in a duplicated 9 × 3 incomplete Latin square design, with 9 treatments and three 7-d experimental periods giving 6 replicates per treatment. The 9 treatments consisted of 1 N-free diet to estimate basal endogenous loss of AA and 8 corn–soybean meal–based diets in a 2 × 4 factorial arrangement, which included 2 CP levels (6.9 or 13.4%) and 4 apparent total tract digestible P (ATTDP) levels (0.09, 0.16, 0.24, or 0.32%). Soybean meal and monocalcium phosphate were used to adjust the CP level and ATTDP level, respectively. Limestone was included in diets to maintain a Ca:ATTDP ratio of 2.5 across treatments. Ileal digesta was continuously collected for 10 h on the last 2 d of each 7-d experimental period. The ileal digesta samples were lyophilized and analyzed to calculate ileal digested N and P. Data were analyzed using PROC MIXED of SAS (9.3) and contrasts were used to test the linear and quadratic effects of increasing levels of P within each CP level. In the low-CP group (6.9%), the ileal digested P was 0.71, 1.16, 1.64, and 2.03 g/kg DMI for diets that contained 0.09, 0.16, 0.24, and 0.32% ATTDP, respectively, and was 0.70, 1.54, 2.03, and 1.99 g/kg DMI, respectively, for their counterparts in the high-CP group (13.4%). A low dietary CP level decreased (P< 0.05) ileal digested P (g/kg DMI). The ileal digested P (g/kg DMI) linearly increased (P< 0.01) with increasing ATTDP levels in the low-CP group, but the pattern was linear (P< 0.01) and quadratic (P< 0.01) in the high-CP group. In the low- and high-CP diets, the determined true ileal digestibility of P in monocalcium phosphate was 54.4 and 75.6%, respectively. In conclusion, this research indicated that the ileal digestion of P could be limited by protein deficiency. The dietary CP level should be considered in P digestibility–related studies.

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To design and investigate a pharmacist-run intervention using low health literacy flashcards and a smartphone-activated quick response (QR) barcoded educational flashcard video to increase medication adherence and disease state understanding.

Two experiments (Exp.) were conducted to validate a 3-point model for the regression method of determining ME, using canola meal (CM) and wheat as test ingredients (TI). Corn-soybean meal-based test diets (TD) contained 0, 100, 200, or 300 g/kg CM, added at the proportional expense of all energy contributing ingredients for Exp. 1, and 0, 150, 300, or 450 g/kg wheat for Exp. 2. For each Exp., 192 Cobb 500 male broiler chickens were weighed and allotted by BW to 1 of 4 treatments at d 21 post hatching in a randomized complete block design. Growth performance and metabolizability responses were evaluated for linear and quadratic effects using orthogonal contrasts, and ileal digestible energy (IDE), ME, and MEn of TI were determined by regressing the TI-associated energy against the dry matter intake of TI using a generalized linear model. Four data sets were used to determine ME, using all possible 3 and 4-point combinations of TD in each Exp. Increasing TI inclusion elicited linear decreases (P< 0.01) in the digestibility and metabolizability of DM and GE in the 2 studies. The ME of CM obtained from the 4 data sets ranged from 1,731 to 1,992 kcal/kg DM, however, excluding the highest concentration of CM produced the highest estimate of ME, whereas the other 3 sets ranged from 1,731 to 1,793 kcal/kg DM. The ME of wheat from the 4 data sets had a smaller range of 3,041 to 3,106 kcal/kg DM. Excluding the highest concentration of either TI produced higher standard errors for the estimate of ME compared to the other 3 sets (42 and 36% greater SE, respectively). Results for IDE and MEn were similar. These data indicate that there is no difference in the variation of estimates between the 3 and 4-point models, provided that the inclusion of the TI is adequate and both models represent the linearity and variability of responses.

Two studies were conducted to evaluate the effects of autoclaving soybean meal (SBM) or poultry meal (PM) on their respective regression-derived phosphorus (P) ileal digestibility and utilization coefficients. On day 19 post hatching 384 or 320 Cobb 500 male broiler chickens were individually weighed and allotted into 6 or 5 treatments in Experiment 1 or 2, respectively. Both experiments consisted of 8 replicate cages with 8 birds per cage in a randomized complete block design. In the first study, 6 diets were formulated with either non-autoclaved or autoclaved soybean meal at 380, 480, or 580 g/kg in a 2 ×3 factorial. The second consisted of 5 diets including one corn-soybean meal and cornstarch based basal diet and 4 diets with 40 or 80 g/kg of non-autoclaved PM or autoclaved PM (APM). Chromic oxide was added as an indigestible index to determine the ileal digestibility and retention of nutrients. Birds received the experimental diets for 3 d and excreta collection was conducted during the last 2 d. At the end of the experiments all birds were euthanized by CO2asphyxiation and ileal digesta samples were collected. Data were analyzed by ANOVA using the GLM procedure. In both studies autoclaving decreased (P< 0.05) DM digestibility and retention. Increasing the inclusion level of test ingredients caused a linear increase (P< 0.05) in intake of digestible and utilizable P in both studies, and linear reductions in the digestibility and retention of DM and P in the soybean meal study. Inclusion of autoclaved SBM resulted in higher (P< 0.01) ileal digestibility of P and retention of P and Ca. The estimated ileal digestibility of P in SBM, autoclaved SBM, PM and APM were 45, 53.6, 61.2, and 61.2%, respectively, the corresponding retention were 40.6, 45, 51.7, and 59.2%, respectively. Comparison of the regression coefficients revealed that autoclaved SBM tended (P = 0.058) to have higher P digestibility than non-autoclaved while no effect was noted with PM.

The current study aimed to quantify the digestible calcium (Ca) equivalency of a new phytase (HiPhorius) in broiler chickens. A total of 1,152 male Cobb 500 broiler chickens were used in an experiment in which 8 diets consisting of graded levels of Ca supplied with limestone or graded levels of the phytase were fed. The 8 dietary treatments were based on a corn-soybean meal diet containing 5.1 g/kg of Ca and 5.1 g/kg of phosphorus (P) as negative control (NC); the NC + 1.3, 2.6, or 3.9 g/kg of Ca from limestone; and the NC + 500, 1,000, 2,000, or 4,000 FYT/kg of phytase. Birds were fed the experimental diets for 3 d (from d 7 to 10) or 14 d (from d 7 to 21) to determine apparent ileal digestibility (AID) and apparent total tract retention (ATTR) of dry matter (DM), CP, Ca, and P. In the 10-day-old birds, increasing the levels of Ca decreased the AID of P and Ca (linear, P< 0.05). Increasing the levels of phytase quadratically improved (P< 0.05) the AID of Ca and P. The AID of DM and CP in the younger birds quadratically increased (P< 0.05) as the levels of Ca increased. There were linear and quadratic effects (P< 0.05) of increasing phytase level for the AID of DM and a linear effect (P< 0.05) for the AID of CP. In the 21-day-old birds, increasing Ca levels resulted in a linear decrease (P< 0.05) in the AID of CP and P, and a quadratic decrease (P< 0.05) in the ATTR of CP. Increasing phytase levels linearly and quadratically (P< 0.05) improved the AID and ATTR of CP, P, and the ATTR of Ca. The analyzed phytase activity in the diets supplemented with phytase ranged from 1,520 to 7,661 FYT/kg. The digestible Ca equivalence for dietary phytase at 1,520 to 7,661 FYT/kg ranged from 1.55 to 2.02 g/kg in the 10-day-old birds fed for 3 d and from 0.52 to 0.64 g/kg in 21-day-old birds fed for 14 d. The results showed the reduction in Ca level that could be accommodated by phytase supplementation, which is markedly different between the younger and older birds. Feeding duration influenced the impact of phytase supplementation on Ca and P digestibility, with better efficacy of phytase observed in the 10-day-old birds fed for 3 d. Also, the results showed the extra-phosphoric effects of phytase on the utilization of other essential nutrients such as protein and Ca.

Bioactive components in garlic have anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and immune modulatory properties that may improve gastrointestinal function in pigs. The current experiment was conducted to identify an effective dose of garlic-derived bioactive components diallyl disulfide (DADS) and diallyl trisulfide (DATS) and to evaluate the effect of graded doses of DADS and DATS on nursery pig performance and gastrointestinal function. Eight replicate pens of barrows were allotted on the basis of initial BW (12.45 kg ± 1.37) in a randomized complete block design to 1 of 6 treatments that consisted of administration of 0, 0.45, 0.90, 1.80, 3.60, or 7.20 mg DADS + DATS/kg BW. The DADS + DATS was administered daily by oral gavage to overnight-fasted pigs for a period of 6 d with soybean oil as the carrier and vehicle control. Growth performance and daily stool consistency scores were recorded. At the end of the experiment, pigs were euthanized and the mid ileum was excised for morphological and gene expression measurements. Mucosal gene expression was conducted by real-time PCR for mucin(MUC2), interleukin 8(IL-8), tumor necrosis factor(TNF-α), claudin 1(CL-1), occludin(OC), and zonula occludens 1(ZO-1). Supplementation with the oral gavage containing DADS + DATS did not affect growth performance or stool consistency, although there was a tendency (P= 0.06) for increased villus height. Expression of the IL-8gene was linearly increased (P= 0.01) and there was a tendency for a decrease (P= 0.07) in the ZO-1gene expression with oral DADS + DATS supplementation. There was no effect of the oral gavage on the expression of the MUC2, TNF-α, CL-1, and OCgenes. For the current experiment, the villus height plateaued at 381 μm, which was with daily oral supplementation of 1.71 mg DADS + DATS/kg BW. Furthermore, oral supplementation of DADS + DATS impacts IL-8and ZO-1gene expression, which may have implications on mucosal immune function and cellular integrity.

Ten ileal-cannulated barrows (65.1 ± 2.8 kg initial BW) were used to determine the effects of dietary resistant starch (RS) content on apparent ileal digestibility (AID), apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD), and hindgut fermentation (HGF) of DM, GE, N, Ca, and P, as well as on fecal metabolomic profile. Pigs were allotted to a randomized complete block design with 2 diets containing low- or high-RS contents and 5 replicate pigs per diet. After a 7-d adaptation period, ileal digesta and feces were collected for 4 and 3 d, respectively. Chromic oxide was included (0.5%) in the diets as an indigestible marker. Nontargeted metabolomics analysis of fecal water samples was performed using mass spectrometry. The AID of nutrient and energy were not affected by the treatments, whereas ATTD of DM, GE, and Ca decreased (P< 0.05) in pigs fed the high-RS diet. Feeding the high-RS diet to pigs increased (P= 0.03) HGF of DM, tended (P= 0.06) to increase HGF of GE, and decreased (P= 0.04) HGF of N. Ninety-seven metabolites, including AA and lipids, differed (P< 0.01) between low- and high-RS diets. Principal component analysis revealed 2 distinct clusters of metabolite profiles between treatments. Results show that RS-rich diets decrease total tract nutrient and energy digestibility with a concomitant increase in HGF of DM and GE and that fecal water is a suitable biofluid for biomarker discovery in metabolomics studies in pigs.

The current experiment was conducted to investigate the impact of acute feed and water deprivation (deprivation) at weaning and a subsequent heat stressor on growth performance and ileal morphology in nursery pigs. Mixed-sex pigs were allotted on the basis of individual birth weight (IBW; 7.0 ± 0.89 kg) in a randomized complete block design with treatments in a split-plot arrangement, consisting of the whole-plot factor of with or without a 24 h of deprivation at weaning and the subplot factor of with or without a cyclic 3-d heat stressor starting at d 27 post-weaning. Growth performance was measured throughout the experiment. On d 1, 27, and 30 post-weaning, 1 pig from each pen was selected, euthanized, and a segment of the mid ileum was excised for morphological measurements. Deprivation reduced (P< 0.01) ADG at d 1 post-weaning, and BW remained lower (P= 0.03) in pigs that were exposed to the deprivation up to d 27 post-weaning. When the heat stressor was imposed (d 27 to 30 post-weaning), heat stress and the combination of the 2 stressors reduced ADG and ADFI (P< 0.05). Furthermore, cumulatively (d 1 to 35 post-weaning), there was a tendency for an interactive effect (P= 0.10) on BW and ADG. The aforementioned interactive effect shows that pigs exposed to both stressors had the poorest performance. There was a reduction in villous height to crypt depth ratio (P= 0.05) due to the deprivation d 1 post-weaning and an interactive effect (P= 0.05) for crypt depth on d 30 post-weaning. Results from the current study show a link between feed and water deprivation at weaning and subsequent heat stress response with implications for growth and ileal morphology.

A study was conducted to determine the ileal digestible energy (IDE), ME, and MEncontents of bakery meal using the regression method and to evaluate whether the energy values are age-dependent in broiler chickens from zero to 21 d post hatching. Seven hundred and eighty male Ross 708 chicks were fed 3 experimental diets in which bakery meal was incorporated into a corn-soybean meal-based reference diet at zero, 100, or 200 g/kg by replacing the energy-yielding ingredients. A 3 × 3 factorial arrangement of 3 ages (1, 2, or 3 wk) and 3 dietary bakery meal levels were used. Birds were fed the same experimental diets in these 3 evaluated ages. Birds were grouped by weight into 10 replicates per treatment in a randomized complete block design. Apparent ileal digestibility and total tract retention of DM, N, and energy were calculated. Expression of mucin (MUC2), sodium-dependent phosphate transporter (NaPi-IIb), solute carrier family 7 (cationic amino acid transporter, Y+system, SLC7A2), glucose (GLUT2), and sodium-glucose linked transporter (SGLT1) genes were measured at each age in the jejunum by real-time PCR. Addition of bakery meal to the reference diet resulted in a linear decrease in retention of DM, N, and energy, and a quadratic reduction (P< 0.05) in N retention and ME. There was a linear increase in DM, N, and energy as birds’ ages increased from 1 to 3 wk. Dietary bakery meal did not affect jejunal gene expression. Expression of genes encoding MUC2, NaPi-IIb, and SLC7A2 linearly increased (P< 0.05) with age. Regression-derived MEnof bakery meal linearly increased (P< 0.05) as the age of birds increased, with values of 2,710, 2,820, and 2,923 kcal/kg DM for 1, 2, and 3 wk, respectively. Based on these results, utilization of energy and nitrogen in the basal diet decreased when bakery meal was included and increased with age of broiler chickens.

Two experiments were designed to determine the N and AA digestibility of various protein sources (potato protein concentrate, soy protein concentrate, soy protein isolate, linseed meal, sunflower meal, cottonseed meal, canola meal, and camelina meal) fed to growing pigs. In each experiment, barrows were surgically fitted with a simple T-cannula at the distal ileum and fed 4 experimental diets and a N-free diet (NFD) on the basis of a replicated 5 × 2 crossover arrangement with 5 diets and 2 periods. For Exp. 1, 20 cannulated 25-kg barrows received potato concentrate, soy concentrate, soy isolate, and linseed meal. The apparent ileal digestibility (AID) and standardized ileal digestibility (SID) of N for potato concentrate, soy concentrate, and soy isolate were similar and greater than that for linseed meal (P< 0.05). The AID and SID of Leu and Thr were greater in potato protein concentrate than soy concentrate (P< 0.05), and AID and SID of Thr were lower in soy isolate than potato concentrate. The AID and SID of all essential AA were similar between soy isolate and soy concentrate. Linseed meal had the lowest AID and SID of N and AA digestibility among protein sources (P< 0.05). In Exp. 2, sunflower meal, cottonseed meal, canola meal, and camelina meal were fed to 42-kg barrows to determine their AID and SID of AA. The AID and SID of N and all AA were greatest for sunflower meal (P< 0.05), and canola meal had similar AID and SID of N, Met, Thr, Leu, and Val. The AID and SID of all essential AA, except for Met and Trp, were lowest for sunflower meal (P< 0.05). Cottonseed meal had lower AID and SID for Lys, Ile, Leu, Met, Thr, and Val compared with the other protein sources (P< 0.05). In conclusion, the digestibility of N and AA varies greatly among oilseed meals.

Direct or indirect methods can be used to determine the DE and ME of feed ingredients for pigs. In situations when only the indirect approach is suitable, the regression method presents a robust indirect approach. Three experiments were conducted to compare the direct and regression methods for determining the DE and ME values of barley, sorghum, and wheat for pigs. In each experiment, 24 barrows with an average initial BW of 31, 32, and 33 kg were assigned to 4 diets in a randomized complete block design. The 4 diets consisted of 969 g barley, sorghum, or wheat/kg plus minerals and vitamins for the direct method; a corn–soybean meal reference diet (RD); the RD + 300 g barley, sorghum, or wheat/kg; and the RD + 600 g barley, sorghum, or wheat/kg. The 3 corn–soybean meal diets were used for the regression method. Each diet was fed to 6 barrows in individual metabolism crates for a 5-d acclimation followed by a 5-d period of total but separate collection of feces and urine in each experiment. Graded substitution of barley or wheat, but not sorghum, into the RD linearly reduced (P< 0.05) dietary DE and ME. The direct method–derived DE and ME for barley were 3,669 and 3,593 kcal/kg DM, respectively. The regressions of barley contribution to DE and ME in kilocalories against the quantity of barley DMI in kilograms generated 3,746 kcal DE/kg DM and 3,647 kcal ME/kg DM. The DE and ME for sorghum by the direct method were 4,097 and 4,042 kcal/kg DM, respectively; the corresponding regression-derived estimates were 4,145 and 4,066 kcal/kg DM. Using the direct method, energy values for wheat were 3,953 kcal DE/kg DM and 3,889 kcal ME/kg DM. The regressions of wheat contribution to DE and ME in kilocalories against the quantity of wheat DMI in kilograms generated 3,960 kcal DE/kg DM and 3,874 kcal ME/kg DM. The DE and ME of barley using the direct method were not different (0.3 < P< 0.4) from those obtained using the regression method (3,669 vs. 3,746 and 3,593 vs. 3,647 kcal/kg DM, respectively). The direct method–derived DE and ME of sorghum were not different (0.5 < P< 0.7) from those obtained using the regression method (4,097 vs. 4,145 and 4,042 vs. 4,066 kcal/kg DM, respectively). The direct method– and regression method–derived DE (3,953 and 3,960 kcal/kg DM, respectively) and ME (3,889 and 3,874 kcal/kg DM, respectively) of wheat were not different (0.8 < P< 0.9). Results of these 3 experiments suggest that regression and direct methods do not give different estimates of DE and ME in barley, sorghum, and wheat for pigs.

A cooperative study comprising growth performance, bone mineralization, and nutrient balance experiments was conducted at 11 stations to determine the standardized total-tract digestible (STTD) P requirement of 20-kg pigs using broken-line regression analysis. Monocalcium phosphate and limestone were added to a corn–soybean meal–based diet at the expense of cornstarch to establish 6 concentrations of STTD P from 1.54 to 5.15 g/kg in increments of 0.62 g/kg at a constant Ca:total P of 1.52:1.0. Diets were fed to 936 pigs (average initial BW of 19 kg) in 240 pens for 20 replicate pens of barrows and 20 replicate pens of gilts per diet. As STTD P increased from 1.54 to 5.15 g/kg of the diet for d 0 to 14, 14 to 28, and 0 to 28, the ADG, ADFI, and G:F increased (P< 0.01). Barrows gained and ate more (P< 0.05) than gilts during d 14 to 28 and 0 to 28. There was no interaction between sex and STTD P concentration for any of the growth performance response criteria. There were both linear and quadratic increases (P< 0.05) in mineral density and content of ash, Ca, and P in the femur expressed as a percentage of dry, fat-free metacarpal as dietary STTD P increased. Furthermore, the maximum load of the femur and mineral density and content and maximum load as well as the Ca and P expressed as a percentage of metacarpal ash linearly increased (P< 0.01) with increasing dietary concentrations of STTD P. There were both linear and quadratic increases (P< 0.01) in apparent digestibility and retention of P with increasing concentrations of STTD P in the diets. Digestibility and retention of Ca linearly (P< 0.01) increased with increasing dietary concentrations of STTD P. Breakpoints determined from nonlinear broken-line regression analyses revealed estimates of 4.20 ± 0.102, 3.20 ± 0.036, or 3.87 ± 0.090 g/kg for ADG during d 0 to 14, 14 to 28, or 0 to 28, respectively. Corresponding estimates using G:F as the response criterion were 4.34 ± 0.146, 3.38 ± 0.139, or 4.08 ± 0.195 g/kg. When mineralization of the femur was used as criteria of response, estimates of STTD P requirement were 4.28, 4.28, or 4.34, g/kg for mineral density, mineral content, or maximum load, respectively. Using mineralization of the metacarpal as criteria of response, estimates of STTD P requirement ranged from 3.5 to 5.0 g/kg depending on the metacarpal response criteria. The study provided empirical estimates of STTD P requirements of 20- to 40-kg pigs.

The objective of this study was to determine the true digestible P requirement of 40- to 60-kg (Exp. 1) and 60- to 80-kg (Exp. 2) pigs by broken-line analysis of growth performance data using 6 levels of true digestible P. In each 3-wk experiment, 108 barrows and gilts were used, and 6 levels of monocalcium phosphate were added to a corn-soybean meal-based diet to establish 6 graded levels of true total tract digestible P ranging from 1.26 to 3.98 g/kg of diet in Exp. 1 or from 1.21 to 3.31 g/kg in Exp. 2. The true digestible P content was calculated using true total tract digestibility of 40.53%, 35.96%, and 84.31% for P in corn, soybean meal, and monocalcium phosphate, respectively. Limestone was added accordingly to maintain a constant Ca level across all diets of each experiment. The results of Exp. 1 showed that with graded supplementation of monocalcium phosphate, ADG linearly increased (P< 0.001) in wk 1 and both linearly and quadratically increased (P< 0.01) in wk 2, wk 3, and wk 0 to 3, and G:F linearly improved (P< 0.001) in wk 1, quadratically improved (P< 0.05) in wk 3, and both linearly and quadratically improved (P< 0.05) in wk 2 and wk 0 to 3 (P< 0.05). In Exp. 2, ADG linearly increased (P< 0.001) in wk 1 and both linearly and quadratically increased (P< 0.05) in wk 2, wk 3, and wk 0 to 3, with the graded supplementation of monocalcium phosphate, and G:F linearly improved (P< 0.01) in wk 1 and wk 3 and both linearly and quadratically improved (P< 0.001) in wk 2 and wk 0 to 3. In Exp. 1, the true digestible P requirement was estimated to be 2.66, 2.79, and 2.51 g/kg of diet (884 g DM/kg) for pigs of mixed sex, barrows, and gilts, respectively, on the basis of broken-line regression of ADG data for wk 0 to 3 against 6 true digestible P levels. Using G:F, the P requirement estimate was correspondingly 2.67, 2.51, and 2.93 g/kg of diet. In Exp. 2, the true digestible P requirement was estimated to be 2.29, 2.20, and 2.39 g/kg of diet (884 g DM/kg) using ADG data for wk 0 to 3 as the response variable and to be 2.33, 2.19, and 2.47 g/kg using wk 0 to 3 G:F data for pigs of mixed sex, barrows, and gilts, respectively. In conclusion, the mean TTTD-based P requirement was 2.66 and 2.31 g/kg of diet (884 g DM/kg) for 40- to 60-kg and 60- to 80-kg pigs, respectively.

This study investigated the amount of energy available to growing pigs from fermentation of dietary fiber in the hindgut. Eighteen growing barrows, fitted with a simple T-shaped cannula at the terminal ileum, were allocated to 3 experimental diets in a completely randomized design. The 3 diets were a standard-fiber diet (SFD), which contained 75.1 g NDF/kg diet; a medium-fiber diet (MFD) of 105.7 g NDF/kg diet; and a high-fiber diet (HFD), which contained 146.9 g NDF/kg diet. Each diet had 6 replicate pigs. After a 5-d period of adjustment of the pigs to the cage environment, feces were collected on d 6 and 7 and ileal digesta on d 8 and 9 and subsequently freeze-dried. Fecal slurry from a pig was used to inoculate the ileal digesta from the same pig. The amount of energy available was calculated from the amount of short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) produced from a 48-h in vitro fermentation of the ileal digesta. Increasing NDF enhanced (P< 0.01) the ileal DM flow and DM in feces. The energy available in the foregut was reduced (P< 0.05) from 3,360 to 2,974 kcal/kg feed DM and increased (P< 0.01) from 619 to 1,009 kcal/kg feed DM produced in the hindgut with increasing dietary NDF. The amount of SCFA increased (P< 0.01) with higher dietary NDF. Acetic acid was highest (P< 0.01) in the HFD whereas propionic and valeric acids were highest (P< 0.05) in the SFD. The amount of butyric acid was not affected by diet. The amount of energy contributed from SCFA fermentation to total tract digestible energy increased (P< 0.01) from 10.7 to 24.2% as dietary NDF level increased from 75 to 147 g/kg feed. The results of the study showed that increasing level of dietary NDF resulted in reduced energy digestibility in the foregut of growing pigs with a corresponding increase in the amount of energy from microbial fermentation in the hindgut.

An experiment was conducted in growing pigs to determine the true total-tract digestibility (TTTD) of P in triticale distillers' dried grains with solubles (DDGS) with or without phytase using the regression method. Six diets were formulated in a 3 × 2 factorial arrangement, including 3 levels of triticale DDGS (300, 400, or 500 g/kg) and phytase (0 or 500 phytase units [FTU]/kg of diet). A total of 48 barrows (initial BW 22.2 ± 1.3 kg) were assigned to the 6 diets in a randomized complete block design. There was a 5-d adjustment period followed by a 5-d total collection of feces. The results show that P intake, fecal P output, and digested P increased linearly (P< 0.01) with increasing level of DDGS in diets. There was a main effect (P< 0.001) of phytase on apparent total-tract digestibility (ATTD) of P. In diets without added phytase, the ATTD of P in triticale DDGS was 65.0, 67.7, and 63.2% for the diets with 300, 400, and 500 g/kg triticale DDGS, respectively; the corresponding values for diets with added phytase were 77.3, 76.3, and 75.7%. By regressing daily digested P against daily P intake, the TTTD of P was estimated at 75.4% for triticale DDGS or 81.1% with added phytase, respectively. In conclusion, the TTTD of P in triticale DDGS without supplemental phytase was 75.4%, and it was 81.1% in the presence of phytase at 500 FTU/kg of the diet, but the difference was not statistically significant. For triticale DDGS, the supplementation of 500 FTU/kg phytase in diet could increase the ATTD of P (P< 0.001) but not the TTTD of P.

Sixteen cannulated pigs were used to evaluate the effect of a new 6-phytase derived from Buttiauxellaspp. and expressed in Trichoderma reeseion apparent ileal digestibility (AID) of AA and apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of DM, N, Ca, P, Na, Mg, K, Cl, and energy. Pigs were fed 4 diets for 2 periods in a crossover design. Within each period, there were 4 blocks of 4 pigs per block with each diet represented within each block. The average initial BW in periods 1 and 2 were 22 and 30 kg, respectively. Each period lasted 9 d with fecal collection on d 5 and 6 and a 12-h ileal digesta collection on d 7, 8, and 9. Pigs received a daily feed allowance of approximately 4.5% of their BW. The experimental diets were based on corn, soybean meal, wheat middlings, and corn distillers dried grain with solubles. Phytase was added at 0; 500; 1,000; or 2,000 phytase units/kg of diet to a basal diet that contained 205, 15, 5.4, and 10 g of CP, Lys, total P (1.6 g of nonphytate P), and Ca/kg diet, respectively. The addition of phytase improved (P< 0.05) AID of DM, N, Ca, and P. Increasing phytase supplementation linearly and quadratically increased (P< 0.05) AID of P and Ca, respectively, with AID of Ca showing a tendency for a linear increase (P= 0.053). Phytase supplementation of the basal diet improved (P< 0.05) AID of P from 46 to 62%. Phytase supplementation increased (P< 0.05) ATTD of DM, N, Ca, P, Mg, K, and energy. Contrasts showed that phytase supplementation of the basal diet increased (P< 0.05) AID for 8 indispensable AA (Arg, His, Ile, Leu, Lys, Phe, Thr, and Val), 6 dispensable AA (Ala, Asp, Cys, Glu, Ser, and Tyr), as well as for total AA. Furthermore, phytase supplementation to the basal diet showed a tendency (P< 0.10) to increase ileal digestibility of Gly. Ileal digestibility of Met, Trp, and Pro were not affected by phytase supplementation. Increasing the level of phytase supplementation resulted in linear increases (P< 0.05) in AID of 6 indispensable AA (Arg, Ile, Leu, Lys, Phe, and Val) and 1 dispensable AA (Asp) with 4 AA (His, Cys, Glu, and Tyr) showing a tendency for linear increase (P< 0.10) in AID of AA. The results from this study showed that in addition to increasing P and Ca utilization, the new Buttiauxella6-phytase expressed in Trichoderma reeseienhanced ileal digestibility of N and several AA in growing pigs in a dose-dependent manner.

Two experiments using soybean meal (SBM) or canola meal (CM) were conducted to investigate whether the choice of digestibility marker influenced the apparent ileal digestibility (AID) or standardized ileal digestibility (SID) of N and AA in diets supplemented with phytase. In each experiment, 18 barrows fitted with T-cannulas at the ileocecal junction were assigned to 3 diets consisting of a N-free diet to determine endogenous losses of N and AA, a semipurified diet (SBM in Exp. 1 or CM in Exp. 2), and the semipurified diet supplemented with phytase at 1,000 phytase units/kg. Three digestibility markers including acid-insoluble ash (AIA), chromic oxide (Cr2O3), and titanium dioxide (TiO2) were added to each diet at 3 g/kg. Each diet was fed for 7 d, consisting of a 5-d adjustment and a 2-d collection of ileal digesta. In both studies, basal ileal endogenous losses determined with Cr2O3as a digestibility marker were lower (P< 0.01) than with those determined with AIA or TiO2digestibility markers. Using SBM as the protein source in Exp. 1, there was no interaction between phytase and digestibility marker on AID or SID of AA. The AID of N and AA in SBM using AIA as a digestibility marker tended to be lower (P< 0.1) compared with Cr2O3or TiO2digestibility markers. Phytase supplementation increased (P< 0.001) the AID of Ca and P. The use of AIA or Cr2O3digestibility marker tended to be associated with lower (P< 0.1) SID values compared with TiO2. Phytase did not affect the SID of N or any AA in SBM except for Met, for which there was an increase (P< 0.05) with phytase supplementation. Using CM as the protein source in Exp. 2, there were significant interactions between digestibility marker and phytase. Phytase supplementation had effects (P< 0.01) on AID or SID when Cr2O3or TiO2was used as the digestibility marker. With Cr2O3or TiO2as the digestibility marker in the CM diets, phytase supplementation increased (P< 0.05) the SID of N and all AA (except Trp). There was no SID of N or AA response to phytase supplementation of CM when AIA was used as a digestibility marker. In contrast, there were no clear improvements in AA digestibility from phytase supplementation for SBM. Phytase effects on AID or SID of AA were dependent on the digestibility marker used in diets when CM was used as the protein source but not when SBM was used as the protein source. Therefore, AA digestibility response to phytase supplementation may depend on the protein being evaluated as well as the choice of digestibility marker.

The impact of acute stressors (24-h feed or water deprivation) on growth performance, intestinal characteristics, and serum stress markers in weaned pigs was evaluated. Pigs (6.21 ± 0.29 kg) were allotted in a randomized complete block design to 4 treatments on the basis of BW at the time of weaning. There were 8 mixed-sex pigs in each of 12 pens per treatment. Treatments were arranged as a 2 × 2 factorial and consisted of a feed or water stressor that included a 0- or 24-h deprivation period postweaning, and pigs were subsequently allowed access to feed and water. Growth performance was measured 1, 7, 14, and 28 d postweaning. Serum and intestinal samples were taken 1 and 7 d postweaning. Serum was analyzed for cortisol and corticotrophin-releasing factor, and villus height, crypt depth, and mast cell density were measured in the jejunum and the ileum. Expression of mucin (MUC2), tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), interleukin 6 (IL-6), claudin 1 (CL-1), occludin (OC), and zonula occludens 1 (ZO-1) genes were measured on d 1 and 7 postweaning in the jejunum and ileum by real-time PCR. There was a decrease (P< 0.05) in ADG with the water stressor 1 d postweaning, although subsequently, there were improvements (P< 0.05) in ADG and feed efficiency. Furthermore, the water stressor reduced ADFI during the last 14 d of the trial and cumulatively (P< 0.05). Seven days postweaning there was an increase (P< 0.05) in jejunal villous height to depth ratio due to the feed stressor and a decrease (P< 0.05) in the ileal villous height to depth ratio due to the water stressor. There was an increase (P< 0.05) in serum cortisol levels due to the water stressor both 1 and 7 d postweaning. Furthermore, there was an increase in serum corticotrophin-releasing factor 1 d but not 7 d postweaning due to the water stressor (P< 0.05). The feed stressor reduced (P< 0.05) TNF-α gene expression, and the water stressor reduced (P< 0.05) OC gene expression in the jejunum 1 d postweaning. In the ileum, there was a reduction in CL-1 and ZO-1 gene expression (P< 0.05) due to the water stressor 7 d postweaning. The results from the current investigation showed that a 24-h feed or water deprivation at the time of weaning has negative impacts on growth performance, intestinal characteristics, and serum stress responses immediately following the stress event and throughout the nursery period.

An experiment was conducted in growing pigs to investigate the additivity of apparent ileal digestibility (AID) or standardized ileal digestibility (SID) of CP and AA in mixed diets containing multiple protein sources. Using the determined AID or SID for CP and AA in corn, soybean meal (SBM), corn distillers' dried grains with solubles (DDGS), or canola meal (CM), the AID or SID for 4 mixed diets based on corn–SBM, corn–SBM–DDGS, corn–SBM–CM, or corn–SBM–DDGS–CM were predicted and compared with determined AID or SID, respectively. Eighteen growing pigs (initial BW = 61.3 ± 5.5 kg) were surgically fitted with T-cannulas and assigned to a duplicated 9 × 4 incomplete Latin square design with 9 diets and 4 periods. The 9 experimental diets consisted of a nitrogen-free diet (NFD) to estimate basal ileal endogenous loss (BEL) of AA, 4 semipurified diets to determine the AID and SID of CP and AA in the 4 ingredients, and 4 mixed diets to test the additivity of AID and SID. Chromic oxide was added as an indigestible marker. Pigs were fed 1 of the 9 diets during each 7-d period, and ileal digesta were collected on d 6 and 7, from 0800 to 1800 h. The analyzed AA levels for the mixed diets were close to the calculated values based on the AA composition of each ingredient. The results revealed that the predicted SID were consistent with determined values, except for Leu, Thr, Asp, Cys, Pro, and Ser in the corn–SBM diet and Met and Cys in the corn–SBM–DDGS diet. The determined AID for total AA and Arg, His, Trp, Gly, and Pro in the corn–SBM diet were greater (P< 0.05) than predicted. For the corn–SBM–DDGS diet, the determined AID were greater (P< 0.05) than predicted AID for CP, total AA, and all AA except for Arg, Leu, and Pro. In the corn–SBM–CM diet, the determined AID were greater (P< 0.05) than predicted AID for Arg, Cys, and Gly. When compared with determined values, predicted AID in the corn–SBM–DDGS–CM diet were lower (P< 0.05) for total AA and Arg, Met, Cys, and Pro. In conclusion, the results substantiate the notion that SID of AA are more accurate than AID for predicting ileal digestibility of AA in mixed diets containing multiple protein sources. In addition, the lack of additivity of AID in mixed diets could be attributed to the intrinsic characteristics of the feed ingredient, especially its AA content.