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The nervous system is divided topographically into two parts: the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. From a functional perspective, however, the two systems are intimately connected and function in an integrated and coordinated manner. The central nervous system comprises the brain and spinal cord, while the peripheral nervous system is made up of the cranial and peripheral nerves and associated neurological structures. This article presents a broad and general overview of the structure and organization of the nervous system emphasizing several important functional features. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The bony pelvis is an irregular but complete bony ring made up of the right and left hip bones anterolaterally and the sacrococcygeal part of the vertebral column posteriorly. The two hip bones are firmly united anteriorly at the pubic symphysis, and together constitute the pelvic girdle. The pelvic girdle articulates with the femoral heads and thereby connects the vertebral column (axial skeleton) to the two femora (appendicular skeleton). The main functions of the pelvic girdle are to transmit weight from the upper body to the lower limbs during locomotion and while standing, and to support the weight of the upper body when seated or stationary. Another important function of the bony pelvis is to provide attachment for the powerful muscles (e.g. gluteal muscles) that act on the lower limb and those muscles that support the abdominal wall. The bony pelvis also provides ample protection to the many delicate viscera, vessels and nerves that lie within the pelvic cavity. Successful orthopaedic management of disruptions of the bony pelvis and management of associated injuries to intrapelvic viscera require a sound appreciation of the anatomy of the pelvic ring and pelvic cavity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The vertebral column (spinal column, spine, or backbone) forms the central axis of the body's skeleton. It supports the skull superiorly and participates in the formation of the pelvis inferiorly. The vertebral column comprises the following five regions in cephalocaudal sequence: cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral and coccygeal. The vertebral column contains the spinal cord within the vertebral canal, protecting the spinal cord from external trauma. Optimal medical and surgical management of spinal disease is crucially dependent on accurate clinical and radiological diagnosis, which in turn are reliant on a sound understanding of the structural and functional anatomy of the vertebral column. In this article a general description of the articulated vertebral column is followed by a description of the morphology of representative vertebrae from the vertebral regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article is a concise description of the applied topographical anatomy of the heart, emphasizing those aspects of cardiac functional anatomy that are essential to clinical cardiac examination. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Advances in technology have led to significant developments in techniques for imaging the abdominal and pelvic organs, in both the elective and emergency surgical settings. Improvements in the quality and availability of imaging has had a profound effect on the delivery of high-quality surgical care and has improved outcomes by providing accurate preoperative diagnosis and staging, leading to a reduction in exploratory and futile operations, while permitting better planned precision surgery and a growing range of interventional radiology procedures. This article will describe the essential anatomical interpretation of the common radiological imaging techniques relevant to the abdomen and pelvis and describe the rationale for selection of the most appropriate imaging modality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The oesophagus is the part of the digestive tract between the pharynx and stomach. The oesophagus is susceptible to several pathological conditions, both congenital and acquired, which may require surgical management. These include congenital oesophageal atresia, functional disorders such as achalasia cardia and hiatus hernia, corrosive strictures, traumatic oesophageal perforation, and oesophageal cancer. This article describes, in detail, those aspects of the topographical anatomy of the oesophagus which are of relevance to clinical diagnosis and surgical management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The stomach is the most dilated portion of the muscular tube that forms the digestive tract. It is located between the oesophagus proximally, and the duodenum distally. Developmentally, the stomach is a derivative of the embryonic foregut, and this derivation is reflected in its arterial supply from the coeliac trunk – the artery to the foregut. Physiologically, the stomach acts simultaneously as a temporary food store, an organ of digestion, and a mechanism to control the rate of flow of digested food into the small intestine where absorption occurs. This article describes in detail the surgically relevant topographical anatomy of the stomach, including its blood supply and lymphatic drainage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The small intestine, comprising the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum commences at the pyloroduodenal (gastroduodenal) junction and ends at the ileocaecal junction. The principal function of the small intestine is the digestion and absorption of ingested food, electrolytes, and vitamins. As might be expected from its very active role as a secretory and absorptive viscus, the small intestine has a rich blood supply and an extensive surface area of absorptive mucosa. The blood supply is derived chiefly from the superior mesenteric artery via its inferior pancreaticoduodenal, jejunal and ileal branches. Accompanying these arterial branches are corresponding venous tributaries that carry venous blood through the superior mesenteric vein to the portal vein and liver. This article describes the key surgically relevant anatomy of the small intestine. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The biliary system or biliary tract is an elaborate system of coalescing channels which transports bile from the liver to the second part of the duodenum. The biliary system is divided for descriptive purposes into intrahepatic and extrahepatic parts. This article is confined to a description of the clinical and surgical anatomy of the extrahepatic biliary tract, comprising the right and left hepatic ducts, common hepatic duct, gallbladder and cystic duct and the common bile duct. Diseases of the extrahepatic biliary tract account for a considerable volume of abdominal surgical practice. These include metabolic, inflammatory, neoplastic, and congenital conditions. A detailed knowledge of the anatomy of the gallbladder and bile ducts and an awareness of the anatomical variations to which these structures are subject are essential to the conduct of safe and effective surgery involving the biliary tract, besides being of crucial importance to the accurate interpretation of radiological and ultrasound images of the extrahepatic biliary tract. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article highlights the clinically and surgically relevant aspects of the anatomy of the liver. The liver is the largest organ in the human body. It can be divided functionally into eight hepatic segments, each with their own blood supply and bile outflow. Anatomically, however, it is divided into the right, left, caudate, and quadrate lobes. The porta hepatis, effectively the hilum of the liver, receives the hepatic artery, hepatic portal vein, right and left hepatic ducts, as well as lymphatic and autonomic nerves. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The large intestine comprises the caecum and appendix, colon, rectum, and anal canal from proximal to distal. Embryologically, the proximal half of the large intestine is derived from the midgut, while the distal half develops from the hindgut. This dual derivation is reflected in the difference in arterial supply to its proximal (superior mesenteric artery) and distal (inferior mesenteric artery) portions. Physiologically, the large intestine primarily functions to absorb water and essential electrolytes (sodium and chloride) from its luminal contents leaving the unabsorbed residue to be excreted as faeces. Fibre-optic colonoscopy and MRI and CT colonography allow detailed internal inspection of the large intestine with relative ease and with minimal discomfort. This article highlights the clinically and surgically relevant aspects of the anatomy of the caecum, appendix, and colon. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rectum and anal canal are the terminal portions of large intestine and the entire gastrointestinal tract. They are thus readily accessible to direct inspection and examination. The rectum functions as a distensible reservoir for faeces, while the anal canal possesses a powerful muscular sphincter in its wall which is important in maintaining faecal continence. Diseases of the rectum and anal canal, both benign and malignant, account for a very large part of colorectal surgical practice worldwide. This article emphasizes the clinically and surgically relevant aspects of the anatomy of the rectum and anal canal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For descriptive purposes, the urinary tract is divided into upper and lower parts. The kidneys and ureters make up the upper urinary tract with the urinary bladder and urethra forming the lower urinary tract. This article discusses the anatomy of the kidney and ureter highlighting key aspects that are of relevance to their function and to the surgeon. The article also includes a brief account of the anatomy of the suprarenal gland because of the close anatomical relationship between it and the upper urinary tract. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For descriptive purposes, the urinary tract is divided into upper and lower parts. The kidneys and ureters make up the upper urinary tract with the urinary bladder and urethra forming the lower urinary tract. In this article, a detailed description of the surgical and functional anatomy of the urinary bladder is followed by a description of the clinical anatomy of the female and male urethra. There then follows a brief description of the relevant anatomy of the prostate and seminal vesicles. While not strictly involved in the conduction of urine from the bladder to the exterior, the prostate and seminal vesicles are so intimately related (both topographically and functionally) to the urethra and bladder that no account of the lower urinary tract in the male would be complete without them. It is conventional therefore to regard the prostate and seminal vesicles as part of the lower urinary tract. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The pancreas is a large, retroperitoneal organ situated immediately behind the posterior wall of the lesser sac, in the floor of the supracolic compartment of the abdominal cavity. Although principally an exocrine gland, the pancreas also performs crucially important endocrine functions. Its deep location and its close topographical relationship to several vital structures make pancreatic surgery both challenging and hazardous. A sound appreciation of the topographical, vascular and ductal anatomy of the pancreas is fundamental to the successful surgical management of pancreatic cancers, congenital malformations of the pancreas and various surgical complications of acute pancreatitis. The spleen is the largest lymphoid organ in the body. It is situated deep in the left hypochondrium, wedged between the gastric fundus, left hemidiaphragm and left kidney. Trauma, lymphoid neoplasia, gastric cancers, portal hypertension and idiopathic thrombocytopenia may necessitate splenectomy. A sound knowledge of the surgical and functional anatomy of the spleen is essential if splenectomy is to be performed safely and effectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article discusses the surgical anatomy of the hand highlighting key aspects that are of relevance to its function and to the surgeon. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The human breasts are paired mammary glands located on the anterior aspect of the thorax. They are more prominent in females after puberty and only rudimentary in males. This article will therefore focus primarily on the female breast, noting any issues of significance to the male breast as necessary. The article will cover the topographical anatomy including blood supply, the development of the breast, and the physiology of the breast in that order. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The nervous system is divided topographically into two parts: the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. From a functional perspective, however, the two systems are intimately connected and function in an integrated and coordinated manner. The central nervous system comprises the brain and spinal cord, while the peripheral nervous system is made up of the cranial and peripheral nerves and associated neurological structures. This article presents a broad and general overview of the structure and organization of the nervous system emphasizing several important functional features. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The vertebral column (spinal column, spine, or backbone) forms the central axis of the body's skeleton. It supports the skull superiorly and participates in the formation of the pelvis inferiorly. The vertebral column comprises the following five regions in cephalocaudal sequence: cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral and coccygeal. The vertebral column contains the spinal cord within the vertebral canal, protecting the spinal cord from external trauma. Optimal medical and surgical management of spinal disease is crucially dependent on accurate clinical and radiological diagnosis, which in turn, are reliant on a sound understanding of the structural and functional anatomy of the vertebral column. In this article a general description of the articulated vertebral column is followed by a description of the morphology of representative vertebrae from the vertebral regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The bony pelvis is an irregular but complete bony ring made up of the right and left hip bones anterolaterally and the sacrococcygeal part of the vertebral column posteriorly. The two hip bones are firmly united anteriorly at the pubic symphysis, and together constitute the pelvic girdle. The pelvic girdle articulates with the femoral heads and thereby connects the vertebral column (axial skeleton) to the two femora (appendicular skeleton). The main functions of the pelvic girdle are to transmit weight from the upper body to the lower limbs during locomotion and while standing, and to support the weight of the upper body when seated or stationary. Another important function of the bony pelvis is to provide attachment for the powerful muscles (e.g. gluteal muscles) that act on the lower limb and those muscles that support the abdominal wall. The bony pelvis also provides ample protection to the many delicate viscera, vessels and nerves that lie within the pelvic cavity. Successful orthopaedic management of disruptions of the bony pelvis and management of associated injuries to intrapelvic viscera require a sound appreciation of the anatomy of the pelvic ring and pelvic cavity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article is a concise description of the applied topographical anatomy of the heart, emphasizing those aspects of cardiac functional anatomy that are essential to clinical cardiac examination. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Advances in technology have led to significant developments in techniques for imaging the abdominal and pelvic organs, in both the elective and emergency surgical settings. Improvements in the quality and availability of imaging has had a profound effect on the delivery of high-quality surgical care and has improved outcomes by providing accurate preoperative diagnosis and staging, leading to a reduction in exploratory and futile operations, while permitting better planned precision surgery and a growing range of interventional radiology procedures. This article will describe the essential anatomical interpretation of the common radiological imaging techniques relevant to the abdomen and pelvis and describe the rationale for selection of the most appropriate imaging modality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]