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Concussions are an important issue facing the short- and long-term health of athletes. News media play an important role in shaping public perceptions of concussions. However, such coverage often provides inaccurate information, disinformation, and/or trivializes concussions. To address the problem, the Concussion Legacy Foundation (CLF) provides workshops to teach journalists to responsibly report about concussions during live and post-competition coverage. Spearheaded by journalism instructors, the present study tested the effectiveness of the workshops through an experiment with 90 college journalism students. Students who completed the training showed improvement in scores on a “concussion in sport” literacy exam. They also performed better on the examination than students in a control condition. Results suggest the training is effective and could be standardized for those studying to work in the field of sports journalism.

Utilizing framing theory, the present study examined gender differences in Iranian state-run media and alternative media portrayals of elite athlete emigration. By analyzing 704 online news articles published between 2007 and 2022 and comparing gender disparities, the study provides insights into the framing narratives used by a nation without a free press to undermine gender equity and national dialogues about sport. The study determined that male athletes received disproportionally high framing coverage over time, but this gender imbalance shifted to the inverse in 2020. This can be attributed to a sudden influx of prominent female athletes emigrating from Iran to avoid political persecution. Study findings also uncovered a stark contrast in the prominence of frames attributed to each gender.

Abstract:In June of 2021, National Football League (NFL) defensive lineman Carl Nassib made history as the first openly gay, active professional football player to come out. Advancing research about news coverage of LGBT athletes, this paper employs content analysis to analyze the frames used in newspaper articles (n = 195) and on social media (n = 5,588 tweets) to report the story of Nassib's coming out. This study examines the media frames that were used most frequently in covering Nassib's coming out and discusses the significant differences between traditional media and those used most widely on social media. Findings indicate overall support for Nassib's coming out, as both newspapers and Twitter posts framed the story as a watershed moment and focused on celebrity support; however, personal attacks were more common on social media. Implications for how media cover gay-athlete stories are discussed.

Following Houston Rockets General Manager Daryl Morey’s social media post advocating for Hong Kong independence, a 2 (NBA, Houston Rockets) × 3 (attacking the accuser, justification, apology) experimental design was utilized to explore the effects of different crisis response strategies on sports fan relationships between/among a professional sport league, one of its teams, and crisis responsibility attribution. Results indicated that apology strategy functioned better in reducing the blame placed on the organization than attacking strategy. Also, people with a more positive relationship or a higher level of identification with the organization would attribute less responsibility. However, when controlling the organization-public relationship or sport identification, response strategies could no longer predict attribution of responsibility significantly, suggesting that the previous relationship matters more than which response strategy is utilized in a crisis.

AbstractThis study explored causal relationships and moderation effects in the context of the National Football League (NFL; American football), employing 732 respondents from a pair of nationally representative samples to determine the degree of similarity or difference between feelings about the United States as it relates to American consumption of the 2018 Winter Olympics and the 2018 NFL season. Media consumption’s influence on one’s feelings of nationalism was stronger for Winter Olympic fans compared to NFL fans, yet no differences were detected on patriotism and internationalism factors. Academicians and sport marketers should regard these findings as a warrant for considering exploring cause-related sports marketing (CRSM) techniques. Differences in nationalism findings suggest that the comparisons between nations are exclusively an Olympics-based phenomena while the National Football League seems to be much more insular in that regard.

Since its 2016 launch, negative attitudes toward The Athletic, a network of hyperlocal subscription sports news sites, have resonated throughout the journalism community because of the new media startup’s nontraditional approach, one centered on hiring established journalists from the hometown newspaper. Therefore, to accurately paint a picture of The Athletic’s perceived impact on print journalism, 22 in-depth interviews were conducted with newspaper sports editors. This analysis reveals that most sports editors were generally accepting of The Athleticand viewed its presence as reinforcement that newspapers need to stick to daily coverage to stand out in the crowded sports media marketplace.

This study analyzed fans' knowledge and acceptance of baseball statistics portrayed on regional broadcasts, with a particular emphasis on modern/advanced statistics. By way of Major League Baseball (MLB) team subreddits, fans were surveyed and quizzed on their knowledge of a variety of baseball statistics; they were also surveyed regarding how new or old school they are as a fan, as well as their levels of Schwabism and mavenism. Results indicated that MLB team broadcasts placing greater emphasis on modern statistics produce fans who are more accepting of and knowledgeable about advanced statistics. While new-school fans and those high in Schwabism and mavenism were found to be more favorable towards modern statistics, controlling for those attributes strengthened the association between team broadcast and modern statistical acceptance and knowledge. Through the lens of social cognitive theory, potential ramifications for statistical portrayals and the influence on both learning and unlearning are discussed.

This study explores if and how perceived Esports streamer credibility influences the audience’s attitude toward the brand endorsed by the streamer. Results from a survey conducted with US adults (N= 277) show the significant and positive relationship between streamer credibility and brand attitude while identifying parasocial relationships and streamer loyalty as two factors mediating the impact of streamer credibility on brand attitude. Structural equation modeling analysis is used to reveal how perceived expertise and trustworthiness of an Esports streamer affect viewer attitudes toward the promoted brands, with theoretical and practical implications outlined.

This study uses social presence theory and social identity theory as theoretical frameworks to examine global social TV usage during a mega-sporting event. A total of 2,296 people from six different nations (Canada, China, Germany, Japan, Sweden, and the United States) were surveyed about their social TV usage, degree of social presence, and team identification in the week following the 2018 Winter Olympics in PyeongChang, South Korea. Primary findings illustrate that increased social TV use predicts increased measures of social presence, social capital, and perceived sociability, which then influences one’s identification with their national team and Winter Olympics fandom. Additional insights are found regarding global social TV engagement and ancillary device usage habits.

To explain the wide attraction to sports, self-esteem impacts of a live American college football game were investigated; testing hypotheses were derived from mood-as-information, social identity, and sociometer frameworks along with previous research on sports and self-esteem. A three-wave field study measured mood, group affiliation, and self-esteem among 174 students at two different universities, immediately before and on 2 consecutive days after the football teams of these universities played in a much anticipated game. Both self-esteem and mood were affected 2 days after the game; however, fans of the winning team showed increased self-esteem (with no related mood improvement) while fans of the defeated team showed decreases in mood (with no related self-esteem deflation). Both the game outcome and the social viewing context influenced self-esteem. Impacts on self-esteem were mediated by both mood and group affiliation changes.

Mental illness remains stigmatized in the United States and abroad, with the mass media often blamed for perpetuating stereotypes about people who experience mental health issues. 2018 witnessed two professional basketball players—star athletes DeMar DeRozan and Kevin Love—disclosing personal experiences with depression and anxiety. Informed by social cognitive and framing theories, the present study examined how news stories characterized the disclosures, examining ways in which journalists presented the athletes as mental health advocates and models for pro-health attitudes and behavior. News stories generally framed the athletes as demonstrating character strength for disclosing mental illness in an athletic culture that often stigmatizes any potential weakness. Journalists often permitted the athletes to directly share their message concerning mental health with readers, as DeRozan and Love discussed (a) the experience of coming out; (b) the positive reception of teammates, coaches, and the public; and (c) the need for an end to mental health–oriented stigma. Stories often called for action, communicating to readers that people with mental illness are “not alone” and should share their experiences with others. The results provide the foundation for research into the relationship between media exposure and mental health-related attitudes, particularly how news framing of athletes’ disclosures shape fan attitudes toward mental health treatment, mental illness, and people who experience mental illness.

As news media mainly focused on issues of nationalism, many people perceive Colin Kaepernick as unpatriotic, even though his protest was about police brutality and social justice. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate how people perceive athlete activism relative to news media framing and to examine the effects of athlete activism on endorsed brands. Two experimental design studies were conducted. Results indicate that news media influenced individuals’ attitudes toward the protesting athlete. Additionally, prior perceptions of the protesting athlete and the brand were significantly associated with attitudes toward the protesting athlete and the endorsed brand regardless of the news media framing conditions. A strong positive relationship between the protesting athlete and the endorsed brand was found. Participants with more positive attitudes toward the protesting athlete had more positive attitudes toward the brand endorsed by the athlete.

AbstractThe development of modern sports in China, to a large extent, has been motivated by nationalism. This study examines the Chinese Central Television’s (CCTV) full gymnastics broadcast (over 14 hours) of the 2016 Rio Olympics by content analysis, uncovering that CCTV held clear favoritism toward home athletes, particularly in a context in which Chinese gymnasts were largely unsuccessful. CCTV’s evident preference toward home athletes echoes an “us vs. them” dichotomy in which the network is inclined to seek superiority over other countries by enthusiastically complimenting in-group members. This study sheds light on sports nationalism in Chinese sports cultures, with theoretical and practical implications provided.

AbstractIssues of reputation management are negotiated in a wide array of contexts, yet arguably one of the most visible of these areas involves how such stories unfold within the sporting arena. Whether involving individual athletes, teams, organizations, leagues, or global entities, the process of navigating issues of image repair and/or restoration and crisis-based communication have never been more byzantine with a plethora of communicative media outlets functioning in myriad manners. This special issue of the Journal of Global Sport Managementadvances scholarship as it relates to the advancement of reputation in sports management contexts, specifically as it relates to crisis communication, image repair, and methods of modern apologia.

This study of 409 sports fans from the United States and China contrasts uses sought and gratifications obtained within four different social media platforms: Facebook and Twitter (in the United States) and WeChat and Weibo (in China). Results indicated that each of the platforms function in starkly contrasting manners. In the United States, Facebook scored higher than Twitter on every motivational measure; in China, WeChat was found to be better at fostering camaraderie, entertainment, habitual use, and maintaining relationships, while Weibo was found to be better for arousal. Moreover, Chinese respondents reported higher gratifications obtained than American respondent on all 12 factors. Implications are offered for uses and gratifications research as well as sports media scholarship.

This study focuses on comparing the uses sought and gratifications obtained when consuming media related to eSports and traditional sports; in doing so, relevant areas of overlap and distinction are ascertained. In all, more than 1,300 American eSports participants were queried as to their interest in both eSports and traditional sports fan/followership. Results revealed that eSports participants sought out media for both eSports and traditional sports for similar motivations, specifically social sport, fanship, and Schwabism. However, it is the magnitude of the motives that truly set eSports fans apart, with participants showing far more dedication and desire to engage with eSport content than in any other realm of the traditional sporting arena.

Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to investigate occurrences of confirmation bias existing for sponsors whose brand is congruent to a sport. More specifically, this research investigates: if confirmation biases for congruent brands occur in the absence of exposure, the impact audience segmentation has on sponsorship evaluations by comparing highly identified fans to non-fans, and if congruent sponsors are recalled more often than incongruent sponsors after exposure. Design/methodology/approach: An experiment was conducted to measure how exposure, type of sponsor, and fan identification impacts recognition, attitude, and purchase intention. Findings: The results confirm sport-congruent brands are more likely to be falsely recognized as a sponsor than non-congruent sponsors in the absence of sponsorship participation. Sport consumers’ confirmation biases yield positive attitudes and purchase intentions for congruent brands even in the absence of immediate exposure. Lastly, exposure has no impact on recall or sponsor outcomes, suggesting the need for articulating the brand’s connection prior to the event to build stronger memory traces. Practical implications: Congruent brands should carefully consider investment costs and expected return on investment, noting benefits of participation might be marginal as a result of confirmation biases. Potential sponsors should also understand cognitive benefits begin before exposure to the sponsorship occurs, and therefore need to articulate a connection to the event prior to exposure by consumers. Originality/value: The findings suggest the importance of confirmation biases when attempting to reach sport consumers. Some brands may be able to increase recall and recognition even in the absence of exposure, thus helping decision makers when managing budgets.

AbstractThe intersection between religion and politics in the United States remains prevalent in the 21st century. Especially in regard to many Protestant Christian denominations, the relationship between religion and political partisanship seems to continually intensify. Through a content analysis of online sermon transcripts, this study focuses on Protestant pastors’ interpretations of numerous political issues in the 21st century U.S. both before and after the 2008 election of President Obama. Drawing from framing theory, the majority of pastors primarily framed their sermons in three main ways: (1) increased discussions of political conservatism after the 2008 election, (2) maintained abortion as the most popular social issue discussed, and (3) increased discussions of literalist interpretations of the U.S. Constitution following the 2008 election. The study’s results and implications for various avenues of future research are discussed at length.

This study examines how perceptions of a story can be altered simply by manipulating the reported winner or loser of a sports contest as well as how individual perceptions of a sports story change when the story is written by a perceived in-group (home nation) versus a perceived out-group (opposing nation). Using a combination of social identity, self-categorization, and hostile media theories, this experimental research aids the understanding of the role nationalism plays in how audiences respond to media gatekeepers from different nations. Results from 219 American participants revealed that the effect of nationalism strength on hostile media perception is greater when the national team loses than when a team wins a game. In addition, the interaction effect of nationalism and game results on the news bias perception is greater when the news is reported in a foreign newspaper than in a domestic newspaper.

Social media have emerged as a vital tool of communication for reaching and engaging broader audiences; however, few studies discussed the differences of news norms and journalists’ practices defined by the news platforms. Using framing analysis, this study examined how U.S. media presented the 2014 Ebola outbreak both within newspaper stories and within each newspaper’s corresponding Twitter account. Twitter accounts deviated from traditional print platforms by having a more magnified voice following key Ebola events, using more updates and science frames and less conflicts, responsibility, consequence, and savior frames. Degrees of alarming or reassuring tones differed by platform as well. While newspapers fulfilled traditional media responsibilities, the Twitter accounts were geared toward public concern during the epidemic escalation, serving responsibilities more befitting a health organization.

ABSTRACTAs sports media evolves, it becomes more integrated. The mobile sport consumption only blurs these lines further, as fans may be finding “information” they do not regard as platform or outlet-specific. A survey of 199 sports fans reveals differences in the uses sought and gratifications from three forms of sports news social media offerings: (a) official team-managed social media outlets, (b) media-managed social media outlets, and (c) fan-managed social media outlets. Results showed that fan-managed social media outlets were less utilized than the other two forms of sport-related social media outlets and gratifications obtained from fan-managed social media were less than those for the other two options. Ramifications are offered on the theoretical and applied levels.

Social identification–based theories (fan identification and nationalism) were used to delineate whether degrees of sports fandom and/or national identity are significant predictors for television consumption of the 2014 Fédération Internationale de Football Association World Cup. A national survey of 490 respondents was conducted at three different time periods (10 weeks before the start of the World Cup, the start of the World Cup, and immediately following Team USA’s first World Cup match) to determine whether planned media consumption of the World Cup shifted based on levels of fan identification and nationalized qualities. Using structural equation modeling, increased nationalized qualities across two of the factors (nationalism and internationalism) increased World Cup fan identification, resulting in predicting higher planned television consumption of this international megasporting event. Nationalized identity alone had no significant result on predicting television consumption of international sport. Ramifications for theory, as well as conclusions related to deciphering the complex formulation of national identity and sports fandom, are offered.

The social media application Snapchat has ascended rapidly, quickly becoming the third most utilized platform of millennials with a valuation as high as US$19 billion. A national survey of 125 respondents revealed that people using Snapchat to follow sports devote roughly the same amount of time to the platform as Facebook and more time than Twitter, Instagram, or Pinterest. Despite finding other platforms better for sport information seeking, relaxation, and interaction, respondents still reported using Snapchat as a main platform for facilitating sport fandom. Both sport fandom and identification bolstered likelihood of using Snapchat for sport-related interactions. Implications for communication and sport scholars and industry professionals are offered.

Abstract:The current study examines how varying fan identification of a niche, violent sport, mixed martial arts (mma), and the sport’s leading organization, Ultimate Fighting Championship (ufc), can impact pleasure, involvement, and, more importantly, self-reported arousal and physiological arousal. An experiment measuring pleasure and two types of arousal (self-report and physiological response) supports previous facets of fan identification theory while adding insight concerning fans’ and nonfans’ physiological response to a violent sport. The results of the study show that increased fan identification is a strong predictor for all ufc-related consumption, involvement, pleasure, and self-reported arousal. However, results reveal differences between physiological arousal based on one’s level of fan identification—but not in the same direction as self-reported arousal, contrary to what previous studies have suggested. Low-identified fans displayed higher levels of physiological arousal than highly identified fans, suggesting that the novelty or arousing nature of the sport supersedes arousal induced from high levels of fan identity. Conclusions regarding the impact of fan identification’s effect on the individual are offered.

ABSTRACTTo determine how consumption team performance (winning/losing) affects fan identification and subsequent nationalism traits, a national survey of 720 respondents was conducted at four different time periods throughout the 2014 FIFA World Cup. Using structural equation modelling, increased consumption significantly predicts fan identification towards the United States Men's National Team (USMNT). Consumption alone had no effect on nationalistic identity; however, fan identification towards USMNT significantly increased nationalised qualities one exhibits toward one's home country. Winning or losing had no effect on fan identity, yet losing did negatively affect fan internationalism scores and views of global citizenship. Ramifications are offered for theory as well as conclusions related to fan identity and nationalism as a byproduct from winning and losing.

Abstract:Mediated visual representations of athletes offer interpreted renderings of social norms, which can dictate social scripts of appearance and social status that encourage compliance or risk social shunning. Concurrently, tattooing has broadened in social acceptance, yet not among all social groups, while readily available photo altering software has led to a social outcry for “authenticity” in human visual portrayals. Such converging dichotomies are the crux of this case study of six athletes’ tattoo portrayals, or lack thereof, in visual media. Social comparison theory offers a foundation to demonstrate ways visual social norms continue to exert pressure on mediated representation; this study suggests a movement toward authenticity of self in an increasingly manicured, visually mediated human appearance.

This study examined the Penn State sex abuse scandal by applying traditional crisis communication strategies, usually invoked by an organization, to the online communication of the university’s active stakeholders, sports fans. Previous findings suggest sports fans will act on behalf of an organization during a crisis. Yet, the tweets of Penn State fans showed that they turned on the university and placed their loyalty with Coach Joe Paterno. Furthermore, this study discovered that fans engaged in the ingratiation, reminder, and scapegoat strategies most befitting the typology offered by Coombs, empowering the active stakeholders in the process. Results of this case provide a warning for organizations that online fan-based crisis response may not always be enacted in their best interests.

Abstract:A total of 1,025 respondents from six nations (Australia, Bulgaria, China, the Netherlands, Slovenia, and the United States) were surveyed about their media use and nationalized feelings in the week immediately following the London 2012 Olympics. These results were then tested in relation to the relative successes of each of the six nations within the 2012 Games. Results showed that all four factors of nationalized cognitions (patriotism, nationalism, internationalism, and smugness) were significantly related to the role of winning for each of the nations within the composite. Theoretical and applied conclusions are offered.

Abstract:Mediated visual representations of athletes offer interpreted renderings of social norms, which can dictate social scripts of appearance and social status that encourage compliance or risk social shunning. Concurrently, tattooing has broadened in social acceptance, yet not among all social groups, while readily available photo altering software has led to a social outcry for “authenticity” in human visual portrayals. Such converging dichotomies are the crux of this case study of six athletes’ tattoo portrayals, or lack thereof, in visual media. Social comparison theory offers a foundation to demonstrate ways visual social norms continue to exert pressure on mediated representation; this study suggests a movement toward authenticity of self in an increasingly manicured, visually mediated human appearance.