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Purpose: To identify trajectories of smoking behaviors of a cohort of youth followed through young adulthood from 2000 to 2013.Design: The Minnesota Adolescent Community Cohort study, a population-based cohort study.Setting: Nationwide, originating in the Midwestern United States.Participants: Cohort of youth surveyed for 14 years beginning at ages 12 to 16 (N = 4241 at baseline; 59% recruitment rate).Measures: Main variable of interest was the number of days smoked in the past 30 days. Also included time-varying and time-invariant covariates.Analysis: We utilized growth mixture modeling to group individuals into trajectories over time.Results: We identified 5 distinct trajectories: nonsmokers (59.5%), early-onset regular smokers (14.2%), occasional smokers (11.5%), late-onset regular smokers (9.4%), and quitters (5.3%). Adjusted models showed that early- and late-onset regular smokers (compared to nonsmokers) had lower odds of attending or graduating from a 4-year college (P< .05). Participants in all smoking classes compared to nonsmokers had greater odds of having more close friends who smoked (P< .05).Conclusion: Our results show that individuals in their teens through young adulthood can be classified into 5 smoking trajectories. More people in this age range remained abstainers than found in most previous studies; however, a sizable group was identified as regular smokers by the time they reached young adulthood. Interventions targeted at teens, including those that address social and environmental influences, are clearly still needed to prevent escalation of smoking as they move toward young adulthood.

Purpose. We examined the relationships among fruit and vegetable intake, alcohol consumption, and socioeconomic status (SES). We hypothesized that fruit and vegetable consumption would be inversely associated with alcohol consumption and the relationship would differ by SES.Design. A cross-sectional analysis.Setting. Large, urban Midwestern county.Subjects. A unique, racially/ethnically diverse sample of 9959 adults (response rate: 66.3%).Measures. Fruit and vegetable intake was measured using two items that assessed servings per day. Alcohol consumption was measured in terms of volume of alcohol consumed and binge drinking. Individual measures of SES included education and household income.Analysis. Weighted multivariate linear and Poisson regression were used to estimate effects.Results. The relationship between fruit and vegetable intake and alcohol consumption varied by SES. Those with lower household incomes who consumed five or more servings of fruits and vegetables per day were less likely to engage in binge drinking relative to those consuming zero to one servings of fruits and vegetables per day (risk ratio = .66; 95% confidence interval: .46, .95). No association was observed for higher–household-income individuals.Conclusion. We observed an inverse relationship between fruit and vegetable consumption and alcohol intake in those with lower household incomes but not in those with higher household incomes. Results suggest that the relationship between diet and alcohol consumption may be more relevant in populations with more restricted economic choices. Results are, however, based on cross-sectional data.

Objective. We assessed changes in levels of support for smoke-free bars and restaurants among teens and young adults before and after implementation of a statewide smoke-free law.Methods. We measured support for smoke-free bars and restaurants among teens and young adults aged 16–24 years living in Minnesota (n=2,785) and five comparison states (n=404), up to 12 months before and up to six months after Minnesota's smoke-free law went into effect in October 2007. We compared changes in support among three subgroups—Minnesota participants who lived with a previous local smoke-free law, Minnesota participants who did not live with a previous local smoke-free law, and participants from the comparison states—before and after Minnesota's statewide smoke-free law went into effect.Results. Support for smoke-free restaurants and bars among participants in Minnesota and comparison states increased after Minnesota's smoke-free law went into effect. Minnesotans, both those living with and without a previous local smoke-free law, showed similar increases in support for smoke-free restaurants as participants in comparison states. However, Minnesotans living without a previous local law showed larger increases in support for smoke-free bars than both those in comparison states and those living in Minnesota with a previous local smoke-free law.Conclusions. Our study employed a more robust design than similar studies and focused on the teen and young adult population. Our results will help advocates and policy makers demonstrate how public support for smoke-free laws increases following smoke-free legislation, particularly among those who were not previously living with a local smoke-free law.

Purpose: To determine the prevalence and predictors of the awareness of cigarette price increases following a cigarette tax increase, and assess the association of the tax increase and attempts to quit and reduce smoking among adolescents and young adults.Design: We used a prospective cohort design.Setting: Surveys were conducted in Minnesota before and after a $0.75 cigarette tax increaseSubjects: We surveyed 3167 adolescents and young adults, including a subsample of 781 past–30-day smokers.Measures: Outcome measures were awareness of cigarette price increases and, among past–30-day smokers, reported changes in smoking behaviors because of the tax increase. Predictors included demographics, social factors, and prior smoking behaviors.Analysis: We estimated the prevalence of the outcomes and their associations with the predictors using logistic regression.Results: Among all participants, 42% noticed an increase in cigarette prices after the tax increase, including 76% of past–30-day smokers. Being a heavier smoker, living with smokers, having more smoking close friends, and generally being aware of cigarette price changes prospectively predicted the awareness of the price increase after the tax increase. Among past–30-day smokers, 16.7% reported quit attempts and 24.1% reported reducing smoking because of the tax increase.Conclusion: Because fewer than half of the participants noticed the cigarette tax increase, media campaigns to raise awareness of tax changes may increase their effectiveness.

OBJECTIVE To assess indoor tanning facility practices in a sample of facilities in 116 cities representing all 50 states. DESIGN Cross-sectional study. SETTING United States. PARTICIPANTS Employees of 3647 indoor tanning facilities were contacted by telephone. Data collectors (ie, confederates) posed as prospective, fair-skinned, 15-year-old female customers who had never tanned before. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Confederates asked respondents about their facility's practices related to parental consent, parental accompaniment, and allowable tanning session frequency. RESULTS Approximately 87% of the facilities required parental consent, 14% required parental accompaniment, 5% said they would not allow the confederate to tan owing to her age, and 71% would allow tanning every day the first week of indoor tanning. In Wisconsin, which bans indoor tanning among those younger than 16 years, 70% of facilities would not allow the confederate to tan. Multivariate analyses indicated that facilities in states with a youth access law were significantly more likely to require parental consent (P &lt;.001) and parental accompaniment (P &lt;.001) than those in states without a youth access law. Law was not significantly related to allowable tanning frequency (P = .81). CONCLUSION We recommend that additional states pass youth access legislation, preferably in the form of bans.Arch Dermatol. 2009;145(9):997-1002--

Objective. We assessed the price variability of cigarettes by brand, neighborhood characteristics (racial/ethnic and youth composition, number of schools, and number of stores), and store type.Methods. Trained research staff purchased three different brands of cigarettes (premium, menthol, and discount—all produced by the same company) at 214 stores in one metropolitan area. We assessed associations between price and neighborhood/store characteristics through multivariate regression, using four price variables as dependent variables—the price of each brand of cigarettes and the mean price across the three brands.Results. We found that the price of cigarettes varied by neighborhood and store characteristics, although this variability differed by brand. For the same brand, the maximum price was 1.7 to 1.8 times higher than the lowest price. We found a positive association between the percentage of a neighborhood that was nonwhite and the price of discount and premium cigarettes as well as the overall mean price of cigarettes, but not with the price of the menthol brand. We found a negative association between the percentage of youth in a neighborhood and the price of premium cigarettes as well as the mean price, but not with the price of the other two brands. In addition, we found a greater likelihood of higher discount brand prices at independent vs. chain-operated stores.Conclusions. Our findings showed that cigarette prices do vary by brand, the youth and racial/ethnic composition in a neighborhood, and store type, suggesting that the tobacco industry might vary its marketing strategies based on brand as well as neighborhood and store characteristics.

Purpose. To examine correlates of smoking policies in a stratified sample of small worksites in Minnesota and to determine knowledge and attitudes of the owners and managers regarding the Minnesota Clean Indoor Air Act (MCIAA) rules that newly applied to their businesses.Design. Cross-sectional survey.Setting. Minnesota offices and factories/warehouses with 5 to 50 employees.Subjects. Owners or managers of offices and factories/warehouses; sample size = 233; response rate = 66%.Measures. Existence and strength of worksite smoking policies.Analysis. Comparison of factories/warehouses and offices in metropolitan and greater Minnesota using chi square and linear and logistic regression analyses.Results. Approximately two-thirds of the worksites claimed to have a smoking policy, but only 26% of the total sample had a policy in writing. Worksites that offered health insurance to their employees were more likely to have a written policy (p < .0001), as were offices in the metro area compared with other worksites (p = .003). Policies of both types of outstate worksites were stronger compared with those at metro sites, and offices had stronger policies than factories and warehouses in the metro area. Only about one-third of the businesses had heard of the MCIAA rule changes.Conclusion. Most small businesses in Minnesota do not have a smoking policy in writing and thus their employees are at risk of exposure to secondhand smoke at work.

Purpose. This study examines the relationship between smoking-related parental, family, and home factors with adolescents' cigarette use.Design. Cross-sectional surveys of adolescents, via a self-administered questionnaire in classrooms, and their parents, via a telephone interview, were conducted.Setting. Fifteen suburban and rural communities within Minnesota.Subjects. The study sample included 8th, 9th, and 10th grade public school students and their parents.Measures. The dependent variable was monthly tobacco use among students. The independent measures were parental, family, and home smoking-related characteristics. There were 1343 parent-child dyads with completed surveys.Results. The final, multivariate logistic regression model found the following variables to be independently related to higher smoking rates among adolescents: child's grade (odds ratio [OR] = 3.03 for 10th vs. 8th), parents' permissiveness of adult smoking (OR = 1.80), parents' having higher normative estimates of how many people smoke (OR = 1.70), parents' decreased likelihood of punishing their teenager for smoking (OR = 1.65), smoking by an adult living in the home (OR = 1.99), and sibling smoking (OR = 8.95). Lack of communication about consequences for breaking family smoking rules was associated with lower smoking rates among adolescents (OR = .49).Conclusion. The results of this study highlight the importance of parental smoking norms and attitudes and smoking role models in the home. It is important that smoking prevention strategies target and include the entire family. Limitations of the study are its cross-sectional design and that the sample was primarily white.

This study examined the effects of work-site health promotion on employee absenteeism. Thirty-two work sites were randomized to programs for weight control and smoking cessation or to no treatment for 2 years. The prevalence of self-reported absences from work was assessed at baseline and follow-up. Results using work site as the unit of analysis showed a net reduction in the percent of workers reporting a sick day in the last month in treatment versus control work sites of 3.7 (P = .04) and 3.4 (P = .06) in cross-sectional and cohort analysis, respectively. Further analyses found that the rate of participation in smoking (P = .09) but not weight programs (P = .72) was positively associated with change in sick day prevalence and that this effect was strongest in baseline smokers (P = .002). It is concluded that work-site smoking cessation programs may yield important short-term economic benefits by reducing employee absenteeism.

The present study prospectively examined changes in dietary intake, physical activity and weight associated with self‐reported efforts to lose weight in a cohort of 3671 men and women sampled from the general population. Dieting efforts, dietary intake, physical activity and weight were measured at two points in time, 24 months apart. At baseline, current dieters reported consuming fewer dairy products, sweets, meat, soft drinks and fried potatoes (all p's < .0001), and engaging more frequently in high‐intensity physical activity (p < .0001) than those not currently dieting. At follow‐up, current dieters reported consuming fewer sweets (p < .0001) and fried potatoes (p < .0008), and engaging more frequently in moderate‐intensity physical activity (p < .02) than those not currently dieting. Prospectively, those who initiated weight‐loss diets showed the largest decrease in consumption of sweets (p < .0001), soft drinks (p < .0001), and fried potatoes (p < .01), and increase in frequency of high‐intensity physical activity (p < .0001) and moderate‐intensity physical activity (p < .007). Those initiating weight‐loss diets were the only group to lose weight (1 lb.). Those dieting at baseline but not at follow‐up gained the most weight (4 lbs.). Self‐reports of current dieting correspond to reported changes in dietary intake and physical activity, and to measured changes in weight over the same time period. Individuals who report dieting to lose weight have healthier eating and exercise patterns than those who do not report dieting.

This paper describes a study examining the feasibility of a worksite health promotion program that was repeated twice in one year. Weight control and smoking cessation classes, which included a supporting incentive component, were made available at a worksite of 485 white-collar employees continuously throughout one year. Identical education programs were offered twice at six-month intervals. Results suggest that this model of program implementation is attractive to employees. Total participation over 12 months included an estimated 53% of overweight employees in the weight program and 23 % of smokers in the smoking cessation program. The two series of classes, run back to back, generated similar participation. Thirty-nine percent of weight control participants and six percent of smoking cessation participants who enrolled in the first program also enrolled in the second. Weight losses and smoking cessation rates were comparable for the two cycles, with a mean weight loss of about seven pounds and a smoking cessation rate at six months of about 33%. Surveys of a random sample of employees at baseline and again at 12 months showed a 28% reduction in the prevalence of cigarette smoking, but no change in average weight or the prevalence of overweight. This study suggests that health promotion programs at worksites which offer repeated opportunities for employee participation are promising and deserve further study.

Background. Tobacco related diseases remain the most important public health problem. Public policy approaches to tobacco control have been used historically, and remain a viable, though largely untested, tobacco control strategy. The purpose of this article is to report assessment of support for tobacco control policies among the general public.Methods. A random sample of 821 residents from seven Minnesota communities was surveyed by telephone to assess their support for 12 measures designed to restrict smoking behavior and curb demand for tobacco. Some of these policies were similar to those already in place, while others had not yet been adopted.Results. Over 50% of the respondents indicated that they strongly favored or some-what favored each of the measures, suggesting that a constituency exists for further regulation of tobacco. Measures that restrict tobacco advertising, prohibit smoking in public places, increase the penalties for selling tobacco to minors, and reduce access of young people to tobacco are especially popular. omen, nonsmokers, and older people form the basis of support for these measures.Conclusions. These results suggest that Minnesota citizens are more supportive of restrictive tobacco control policies than policy makers might believe, and that more aggressive lobbying on behalf of such measures at the state and local level is warranted.

Twenty-one men and 38 women participated in a worksite smoking cessation/smoking reduction program that combined financial contracts, organized through payroll deduction, and biweekly group treatment sessions. At the end of the program the smoking cessation rate was 51%, validated by expired air carbon monoxide. Six months later the validated cessation rate was 12%. We conclude that payroll incentives may be effective in helping workers quit smoking and offer suggestions for ways to promote better maintenance of this important behavior change.

Availability of tobacco to young people is believed to be an important factor in the onset of tobacco use. We still do not have a complete picture of how tobacco is obtained by youths or how access can be curtailed.

Chloroplast mutations in the green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii exhibit a predominantly maternal pattern of inheritance and this pattern can be perturbed by UV irradiation of the maternal gametes prior to mating. In a series of crosses over a range of UV doses, the transmission, segregation, and recombination of mutations at three closely linked chloroplast loci have been examined by pedigree analysis of products arising from the first three post-zygotic divisions. Stocks used in these crosses were constructed to permit identification of the nuclear products of each of the two meiotic divisions and the first post-meiotic mitotic division.

In a worksite weight control program using a self-motivational program of financial incentives implemented through payroll deduction, 131 university employees chose weight loss goals (0 to 60 lb) and incentives ( 5 to 30) to be deducted from each paycheck for six months. Return of incentive money was contingent on progress toward weight goals. Participants were assigned randomly to one of four protocols, involving group educational sessions v self-instruction only and required v optional attendance at weigh-ins and sessions. Overall, dropout rates (21.4) and mean weight loss (12.2 lb) were encouraging, especially compared with those of other work-site programs. Weight loss was positively associated with attendance at weigh-ins and educational sessions. However, requiring attendance did not increase program effectiveness and seemed also to discourage enrollment among men. The weight control program was equally effective when offered with professionally led educational sessions or when accompanied by self-instructional materials only.

We report the results of a survey conducted in upper-midwestern communities to assess public attitudes toward policy level interventions to moderate the use of alcohol, tobacco, and high-fat food. Four hundred thirty-eight women and 383 men were asked to indicate how much they favored or did not favor 29 policy proposals. Results showed that regulatory controls in all three areas were favored by the general public. Support was strongest for alcohol and tobacco controls, less so for high-fat food. Interventions designed to protect children and youths were most strongly endorsed, followed by restrictions on advertising and direct control over conditions of sale. Women favored all interventions more than men. There was a strong positive association between age and support for measures to moderate alcohol use. Individuals reporting least personal use of alcohol, tobacco, and high-fat foods were most in favor of control policies. The results of this survey indicate specific measures that might be most readily enacted and what segments of the population are likely to be most and least receptive.

Cytoplasmically inherited chloramphenicol- and erythromycin-resistant mutants were obtained in three unrelated and two isogenic haploid strains of yeast. The bias favoring the transmission of these resistance alleles in crosses to the isogenic strains was compared on two levels: on the population level by means of observing random diploid progeny from mass matings, and on the zygote level by zygotic pedigree analyses. The genetic basis of this bias was determined by tetrad analysis. Our results suggest that 1. an intracellular selection mechanism operates within zygotes to determine the degree of bias; 2. the selection mechanism operates differently with respect to the two loci, C and E, under consideration; and 3. the selection mechanism is controlled by a set of nuclear genes. Other models which have been suggested to explain bias are critically examined in light of our results.

A large number of spontaneous, cytoplasmic petite mutants from six grande strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae were crossed to a pair of isogenic tester strains. Suppressivity values were obtained by randomly sampling the diploid progeny from these crosses, and on this basis, crosses were broadly categorized as having high, intermediate, or low suppressivity. For each cross, individual zygotes were obtained also. All successive first-generation buds were isolated from the zygotes, and analyzed for the presence of petite genotypes. We found that, though early buds may be mixed, all zygotes eventually produce a succession of buds which have the same genotype—either all petite or all grande. Many more zygotes from crosses in all categories of suppressivity purified to petite than expected from the population values for suppressivity. Reconstruction experiments indicate that most petite mutants may actually generate over 90% petite progeny in a petite x grande cross.

Yeast zygotes which are heteroplasmic for mitochondrial genes reproduce vegetatively to form clones of diploid progeny which are homoplasmic. This vegetative segregation of mitochondrial genes has been interpreted in terms of a random distribution of mitochondria or mitochondrial genomes between mother and bud at cell division. We have developed equations which permit calculation of the number of segregating units in the zygote and the number of those units which enter the bud, assuming that segregation of the units is genetically random and numerically variable or equal. Use of the equations requires data from partial pedigree analyses: we isolate zygotes, separate the first bud, then determine the frequency of mitochondrial alleles among the progeny of mother cells whose first buds were homoplasmic. Application of this method to data from five crosses suggests that most zygotes have a small number of segregating units (usually less than a dozen) and only one or two enter the first bud. Analysis of the frequency of buds which are nearly but not quite homoplasmic indicates that the segregating units may be mitochondria or portions thereof which include many mitochondrial genomes, all the genomes in a unit being genetically identical in most but not all cases. These results are compatible with, but do not prove, the hypothesis of random vegetative segregation of mitochondria.