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ABSTRACTIn this study, variation on the chemical compositions of the essential oil from eight populations of Ziziphora tenuior L. cultivated in semiarid climate, southwestern of Iran was performed. The essential oil analyzed by GC-FID and GC/MS. Significant variability in the main constituents of the essential oils was observed among the investigated populations of Z. tenuior. The major compounds were pulegone (18.46–46.28%), piperitenone (0–30.61%), p-mentha-3-en-8-ol (0.46–28.49%), caryophyllene oxide (0.13%–14.78%), and germacrene-D (0.11–14.23%). According to the multivariate analysis using principal component analysis (PCA) and hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA), three chemotypes were identified including chemotype-I: pulegone/germacrene-D/caryophyllene oxide; chemotype-II consisted of two subgroups (first subgroup: pulegone/p-mentha-3-en-8-ol, and the second subgroup: pulegone); and chemotype-III: piperitenone/pulegone. These chemotypes are the result of genetic differences and diversity between populations. The results of this investigation can help to improve the chemotaxonomic and phytochemical studies and the conservation and breeding programs of this herb.

Mountain fennel (Zaravschanicamembranacea) and Ferulagoangulatabelonging to the Apiaceae family are important aromatic and spice plants in Iran, which the aerial parts of these herbs are used as flavoring agents in dairy foods. This investigation was devoted to the determination of total phenols and flavonoids contents of Z.membranaceaand F.angulataafter their extraction using three solvents (ethanol, n-hexane, and methanol), as well as the determination of the antioxidant and the antibacterial activities of all obtained extracts. The results indicated that methanol appeared the most effective solvent for polyphenols and flavonoids’ extraction for both herbs. In fact, the highest total phenols and flavonoids contents among the six prepared extracts from two herbs were found in the methanol extract of Z.membranacea. The results indicated that the extracts of have diverse antioxidant capacities, however, the methanol extract of Z.membranaceaexhibited the highest antioxidant activities by DPPH, FRAP and ABTS assays.  Moreover, the antibacterial activity of different extracts was evaluated using the disk diffusion agar method against Salmonellaentericaand Pseudomonasaeruginosa, and Bacillussubtilisand Staphylococcusepidermidis. The highest inhibition zone was obtained from the methanol extract of Z.membranaceafor four bacteria. Similarly, the maximum antibacterial activity (MIC) also was obtained from the methanol extract of Z.membranaceafor four bacteria. Positive and significant correlations were noted between the phenolic and flavonoid contents and antioxidant activities by DPPH, FRAP, and TEAC assays.  In conclusion, methanol was found to be the best solvent of choice for the extraction of phenolic and flavonoid compounds rich extracts with free radical scavenging and antibacterial activities. Further studies should focus on the isolation and identification of active secondary metabolites from the extracts from Iranian herbs.

AbstractThe fruits of eight populations of B. persicumwere collected from different regions in northeast of Iran. Essential oil of B. persicumwas extracted by hydrodistillation and analysed by GC-FID and GC/MS. The oils yields of dried fruits were found to be between 3.1 and 7.9% (v/w). In total, 19 compounds were identified that representing about 95.4–98.9% of the oil compositions. The major compounds (>5%) were γ-terpinene (29.2–40.1%), cuminic alcohol (16.4–28.4%), cumin aldehyde (9.1–18.9%), p-cymene (9.4–15.6%), safranal (3.4–7.9%) and limonene (3.7–6.4%). Monoterpene hydrocarbons were the main constituents in all populations. A hierarchical cluster analysis was done to put the chemical compositions of the essential oils from B. persicumfruit into perspective. The cluster analysis revealed at least five different groups and between these populations. The results of this experiment showed differences among the amount of oil yield, main and minor compounds in studied B. persicumpopulations.

AbstractThe composition of hydro-distilled essential oils from fresh leaves of wild growing Juniperus polycarposvar. turcomanica, collected from northeaste of Iran, were investigated by GC and GC–MS analysis during growing season 2012–2013. The oil yields depend on the month of collecting and ranged between 1.5 and 2.1% (v/w). Analysis of the essential oil identified 49 components that representing 89.7–94.6% of the total oil. Results indicated that the predominant presence of monoterpene constituents, representing 56.9–85.6% of the essential oil. The main constituent was α-pinene (41.8–75.4%), followed by germacrene B (1–5.8%), camphor (0.7–4.5%) and α-cadinol (0.4–4.8%). Regarding essential oil composition, quantitative and qualitative variations were recorded for 12 different collection periods. The best time for harvesting juniper leaves seems to be from mid-autumn to mid-winter.

AbstractInfluence of microwave power on dehydration kinetics as well as quantity, chemical composition and antioxidant potential of peppermint essential oil was evaluated. The leaves were dried using microwave powers of 200, 400 and 800 W, and the essential oils extracted by hydro-distillation. The antioxidant potential of the essential oils was quantified by DPPH radical-scavenging activity method. The obtained results showed that increasing microwave power caused significant decrement (p≤ 0.01) in drying duration. Drying over the considered microwave powers reduced essential oil yield significantly (p≤ 0.01). In total, 36 compounds were identified in the essential oils belonging mainly to oxygenated monoterpenes. The main constituents namely menthol, menthone and menthyl acetate showed significant variation (p≤ 0.01 or p≤ 0.05) with the drying process. Antioxidant assaying indicated significant effect (p≤ 0.05) on radical scavenging activity of the essential oil by drying and essential oil concentration. Compared to the fresh samples (with an IC50of 103 μg/ml), the leaves dried at microwave power levels of 200, 400 and 800 W resulted in significant lower antioxidant activities with IC50values of 201, 291 and 615 μg/ml, respectively.

AbstractThe aim of this study was to assess environmental factors effects on quality and quantity of Iranian rosemary oil. Chemical components were identified by GC-FID and GC/MS. Results indicated that essential oil yields exhibited significant variation among accessions. The highest contents were recorded for the Bo2 and Bo3 accessions (2.6 and 2.3 ml/100 g, respectively). The major constituents were 1,8-cineole (5.32–28.29%), camphor (1.58–25.32%) and α-pinene (14.19–21.43%). The Iranian accessions also exhibited chemical variability for other major compounds such as borneol, piperitone, camphene, bornyl acetate, verbenone, and trans-pinocamphone. According to multivariate analysis, including CA, HCA, DCA, and PCA the rosemary accessions belonged to two main chemotypes (I camphor type and II α-pinene/1,8-cineole/camphor type). Results of CA and DCA analyzes were similar and both of them were in agreement with the results of PCA analyzes. Furthermore, there were positive and negative correlations between the major constituents and environmental factors.

Thymus daenensis, a perennial herb, is often grown in areas that experience drought conditions during its growing period. Application of chitosan may compensate for the negative impact of drought stress on the yield of oil and secondary metabolites in Thymus. The interactive effects of foliar application of chitosan and drought stress on dry matter, essential oil yield, and selected physiological characteristics including photosynthetic pigments, osmotic adjustment, and lipid peroxidation of Thymuswere investigated in a two-year study from 2014 to 2015. Treatments consisted of 0, 200, and 400μLL−1chitosan applied to plants grown under field capacity, mild drought stress (50% field capacity), and severe drought stress (25% field capacity). Dry matter yield decreased substantially as drought stress intensified. However, essential oil content increased under stress conditions, with the highest essential oil yield obtained from plants under mild drought stress. Foliar application of chitosan compensated to some extent for dry matter and oil yield reduction of plants grown under drought stress. The highest essential oil yield (1.52g plant−1) was obtained by application of 400μLL−1chitosan under the mild stress condition in 2015 when plants were mature. The compensatory effect of chitosan in reducing the negative impact of stress conditions on dry matter and oil yield was due mainly to stimulation of osmotic adjustment through proline accumulation and reduction of lipid peroxidase level, which increased the integrity of cell membranes of thyme leaves.

AbstractSatureja bachtiaricabelonging to the family Lamiaceae is an endemic plant that widely distributed in southwestern of Iran. In this study, antibacterial activity and chemical composition of the essential oils from wild populations of S. bachtiaricacollected from the alpine regions of southwestern of Iran were evaluated. The essential oils obtained from the aerial parts of ten populations of S. bachtiaricawere analyzed by GC-FID and GC-MS. Essential oil yields were from 1.5 to 1.9 mL/100 g dried material. The major constituents of the essential oils were carvacrol (1.26–62.3 %), thymol (3.2–40.6 %), γ-terpinene (1.94–28.3 %), and p-cymene (6.6–18.4 %). The essential oils from S. bachtiaricawere rich in monoterpenoids, especially oxygenated monoterpenes. Among ten populations, the essential oils from the Mehriz and Yazd populations had the highest carvacrol amount (62 %). Results indicated that the essential oils had moderate-to-good inhibitory activities against six bacteria. In total, two chemotypes, including carvacrol and thymol were determined for S. bachtiarica.

AbstractThe aerial parts of wild Achillea wilhelmsiiC. Koch and A. kellalensisBoiss. & Hausskn. (Asteraceae family) were collected from Southwestern Iran provinces. The essential oils obtained by steam distillation from fine powder of the leaves and flowers of the two Achilleaspecies have been analyzed by GC and GC-MS. The oil yield varied of 0.23 to 0.68% dry matter. The variations in chemical compositions from the flowers and leaves are important between plant populations. A total of 46 constituents were identified. The major constituents of the essential oils of A. wilhelmsiicollected from the Ben and Natanz regions were lavandulyl acetate (t 26.2%), chrysanthenone (t 18.3%), 1,8-cineole (5.5 17.2%), linalool (0.8 16.1%), camphor (0.5 16.6%), borneol (t 6.5%), α-pinene (2.7 6.5%) and lavandulol (t 6.0%), while the essential oils of A. kellalensisfrom the Kallar region were chamazulene (49.0 52.6%), α-bisabolol (20.5 -25.1%), β-myrcene (2.8 3.7%), and αpinene (1.6 4.5%). Although, the essential oils from the flowers and leaves of A. kellalensiswere characterized by high level of oxygenated sesquiterpenes, those of A. wilhelmsiiwere characterized by high level of oxygenated monoterpenes.

AbstractEchinophora cinerea(Apiaceae) grows wild in the Zagros Mountains range, located in Iran. The herb has been used as a food additive in traditional preparations such as pickles. This study determined the chemical composition and biological activity of essential oils in the aerial parts of E. cinereacollected from three natural habitats at two phenological stages. The essential oils constituents were determined by GC-FID and GC/MS. The antimicrobial activity of the essential oils was evaluated against Bacillus cereus, Listeria monocytogenes, Proteus vulgaris, and Salmonella typhimuriumand Candida albicans. The highest oil yield obtained from E. cinereawas 2.05%w/w dry matter harvested from plants at the full flowering stage. Major essential oil constituents were α-phellandrene (42.40 to 54.87%), α-pinene (12.28 to 25.54%), and β-phellandrene (10.29 to 11.08%).The essential oils of E. cinereaharvested at the full flowering stage of growth had the highest antimicrobial activity. The antioxidant activity of E. cinereaindicated the oil acted as an effective DPPH scavenger. The IC50values ranged from 1.97 mg/mL to 2.25 mg/mL for the essential oils as compared with the 0.412 mg/mL for BHT. The antimicrobial properties of the essential oils obtained from E. cinereamay be significant from a pharmaceutical standpoint.

Jasmonic acid (JA) and its volatile methyl ester (MJ) are regarded as endogenous regulators that play important roles in regulating stress responses, plant growth and development. Salicylic acid (SA) has been identified as an important signaling element involved in establishing the local and systemic disease resistance response of plants after pathogen attack. Growth, oil yield and chemical components of Satureja hortensisL. grown in greenhouse conditions were investigated. Experimental treatments, included (i) water foliar application, (ii) water + ethanol foliar application, (iii–v) 50, 100, and 200 μL JA and (vi–ix) 50, 100, and 200 M SA. The hydro-distilled oil yields of studied treatments ranged between 0.74 and 0.91 mL/100 g dry matter. The major components of the oil were carvacrol, γ-terpinene, (Z)-β-ocimene, α-pinene, and α-terpinene. The result indicated that different levels of JA and SA had significant impacts on chemical components of S. hortensisoils, whereas they had no significant effects on oil yield and dry herbage. Foliar application of 50 μL SA increased monoterpene hydrocarbons in S. hortensisoil, whereas oxygenated monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes decreased. Finally, some of secondary metabolites in S. hortensiscould be partially changed by supplementation of different elicitors.

Satureja kallaricaJamzad belongs to the family Lamiaceae and is an endemic medicinal and aromatic plant in Iran. This is a herb growing wild in the alpine region (Kallar mountain) in southwest Iran. A GC and GC/MS analysis of essential oil isolated from the aerial parts of S. kallaricaidentified 12 constituents accounting for 91.9% of the total oil. The essential oil yield was 0.15 ml/100 g based on the dry weight of plant material. The major oil constituents were piperitenone oxide (71.2%), piperitenone (6.7%), and pulegone (5.4%). The essential oil was rich in monoterpenoids, especially oxygenated monoterpenes (80.1%).