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Mercury (Hg) poses a health risk to wildlife populations and has been documented at relatively high concentrations in many marine mammals, including wild-caught pinnipeds along the central California, US coast. We measured total Hg concentrations ([THg]) in hair and blood of live-stranded harbor seals (HS; Phoca vitulina), California sea lions (CSL; Zalophus californianus), and northern elephant seals (NES; Mirounga angustirostris) in California to quantify species, temporal, and spatial variability in [THg] and assess the relationships between [THg] measured by different methods (blood vs. filter paper) and in different matrices (blood vs. hair). We compared [THg] with toxicologic thresholds of concern to aid in identification of at-risk individuals or groups and better understand how the use of different methods and matrices affects assumed toxicologic risk. There was a wide range of [THg] in blood (<0.01–1.13 µg/g) and hair (0.45–81.98 µg/g), and NES had higher [THg] compared with HS and CSL. All three species had individuals with [THg] that exceeded the lower threshold for one or both matrices, but only HS pups had [THg] exceeding upper thresholds. Spatial differences in [THg] were detected, with higher concentrations in HS pups from areas surrounding San Francisco Bay, but differences were dependent on sampling year and matrix. The relationship between [THg] in blood and filter paper (r2=0.98) was strong, and differences had little influence on comparisons with toxicologic thresholds. Blood and hair [THg] were generally in agreement (r2=0.72), but large mismatches for a few seals underscore the importance of combined sampling in adverse effects studies where accurate assessment of Hg exposure is crucial. The wide range of [THg] in stranded HS pups that exceeded published thresholds of concern makes them a promising candidate for adverse effects studies, particularly because different matrices represent Hg exposure across key developmental stages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Urogenital carcinoma is common in wild California sea lions ( Zalophus californianus) along the west coast of the US. From 1979 to 1994, this cancer was observed in 18% (66/370) of necropsied subadult and adult sea lions at The Marine Mammal Center in Sausalito, California. A retrospective review of records from 1 January 2005 to 31 December 2015 was performed to characterize prevalence and characteristics of cancer over this decade. Fourteen percent (263/1917) of necropsied sea lions had cancer, of which 90% (237/263) were urogenital carcinoma. The prevalence of urogenital carcinoma was significantly higher in adults compared to juveniles and subadults. Advanced-stage disease with metastases was identified histologically in 78% (182/232) of cases and was the cause of death in 95% (172/182) of these cases. Metastases were most common in lung and lymph nodes, and hydronephrosis, secondary to ureter obstruction by metastases, was identified in 62% (114/185) of animals with advanced disease. No significant temporal change in prevalence was detected over the decade, and this highly aggressive, fatal cancer remains common in stranded California sea lions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We developed a stochastic susceptible–exposed–infectious–removed (SEIR) model to simulate a range of plausible morbillivirus outbreak scenarios in a randomly mixing population of 170 endangered Hawaiian monk seals (Neomonachus schauinslandi). We then modeled realistic vaccination and quarantine measures to determine the potential efficacy of such mitigation efforts. Morbillivirus outbreaks represent substantial risk to monk seals—91% of simulated baseline outbreaks grew (R0>1), and in one-third of the scenarios all, or nearly all, individuals were infected. Simulated vaccination efforts in response to an outbreak were not effective in substantially reducing infections, largely because of the prolonged interval between vaccination and immunity. Prophylactic vaccination, in contrast, could be an effective tool for preventing outbreaks. Herd immunity is practically achievable because of the small sizes of monk seal populations and the animals’ accessibility on shore. Adding realistic spatial structure to the model, as informed by movement of seals tracked in the main Hawaiian Islands with the use of telemetry, greatly reduced the simulated impact of outbreaks (≤10 seals were infected in 62% of spatially structured simulations). Although response vaccination remained relatively ineffective, spatial segregation allowed herd immunity to be achieved through prophylactic vaccination with less effort. In a randomly mixing population of 170 seals, 86% would need to be vaccinated to achieve herd immunity in 95% of simulated outbreaks, compared to only approximately 60% in three spatially segregated subgroups with the same combined abundance. Simulations indicate that quarantining a modest number (up to 20) of ill seals has the potential to extinguish even fast-growing outbreaks rapidly. The efficacy of quarantine, however, is highly dependent upon rapid detection and response. We conclude that prophylactic vaccination combined with a quarantine program supported by vigilant surveillance and rapid, reliable diagnosis could greatly mitigate the threat of a morbillivirus outbreak in Hawaiian monk seals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We characterize Brucella infection in a wild southern sea otter ( Enhydra lutris nereis) with osteolytic lesions similar to those reported in other marine mammals and humans. This otter stranded twice along the central California coast, US over a 1-yr period and was handled extensively at two wildlife rehabilitation facilities, undergoing multiple surgeries and months of postsurgical care. Ultimately the otter was euthanized due to severe, progressive neurologic disease. Necropsy and postmortem radiographs revealed chronic, severe osteoarthritis spanning the proximal interphalangeal joint of the left hind fifth digit. Numerous coccobacilli within the joint were strongly positive on Brucella immunohistochemical labelling, and Brucella sp. was isolated in pure culture from this lesion. Sparse Brucella-immunopositive bacteria were also observed in the cytoplasm of a pulmonary vascular monocyte, and multifocal granulomas were observed in the spinal cord and liver on histopathology. Findings from biochemical characterization, 16S ribosomal DNA, and bp26 gene sequencing of the bacterial isolate were identical to those from marine-origin brucellae isolated from cetaceans and phocids. Although omp2a gene sequencing revealed 100% homology with marine Brucella spp. infecting pinnipeds, whales, and humans, omp2b gene sequences were identical only to pinniped-origin isolates. Multilocus sequence typing classified the sea otter isolate as ST26, a sequence type previously associated only with cetaceans. Our data suggest that the sea otter Brucella strain represents a novel marine lineage that is distinct from both Brucella pinnipedialis and Brucella ceti. Prior reports document the zoonotic potential of the marine brucellae. Isolation of Brucella sp. from a stranded sea otter highlights the importance of wearing personal protective equipment when handling sea otters and other marine mammals as part of wildlife conservation and rehabilitation efforts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Effects of cetacean morbillivirus (CeMV) on dolphins vary from causing epidemics to subclinical infections. The former have been documented in the North Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea but not in the North Pacific Ocean, and the reasons for this are unknown. To explore the distribution of this virus in areas that have not experienced epidemics, we reviewed evidence for morbilliviral infection in odontocetes stranded along the California coast, US from 2000-15. Nine of 212 animals examined histologically had lesions compatible with morbilliviral infection, and 11 were tested for CeMV via reverse transcriptase-PCR. One striped dolphin ( Stenella coeruleoalba) was PCR positive, and the sequenced product was most closely related to sequences in two strains found in cetaceans in Hawaii. This study suggests that CeMV may be a cause of morbidity and a rare contributor to mortality in cetaceans stranding along the California coast. Additional work is needed to understand CeMV distribution and host species susceptibility in this region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

California sea lion adenovirus 1 (CSLAdV-1) has been associated with hepatitis and enteritis in several wild and captive populations of diverse pinniped species. Currently available tests have been limited to pan-adenoviral polymerase chain reaction (PCR) followed by sequencing. We present the development of a quantitative probe-hybridization PCR (qPCR) assay for rapid, sensitive, and specific detection of this virus in California sea lions (Zalophus californianus) and other pinnipeds. This assay did not amplify other mammalian adenoviruses and is able to detect consistently down to 10 viral copies per well. Compared with the gold standard conventional pan-adenovirus PCR/sequencing assay, diagnostic sensitivity and specificity of 100% and 88.2% were found, respectively. The lower diagnostic specificity of this qPCR assay may be the result of the lower limit of detection of this assay compared with the gold standard rather than the result of detection of true false-positives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ℇ-Aminocaproic acid (EACA) is a lysine analogue antifibrinolytic drug used to treat bleeding disorders in humans and domestic animals. Its use in zoological medicine is rare, and dosage is anecdotal. One possible application of EACA is to treat bleeding associated with prepatent Otostrongylus arteritis in Northern elephant seals ( Mirounga angustirostris) presenting to wildlife rehabilitation centers. This study used an in vitro model of hyperfibrinolysis and a thromboelastograph-based assay to estimate the therapeutic plasma concentration of EACA in elephant seals (85 μg/ml, 95% confidence interval = 73.8-96.8 μg/ml). A concurrent pharmacokinetic study of orally administered, single-dose EACA found that doses of 75 and 100 mg/kg achieved therapeutic plasma concentrations (>85 μg/ml), but the drug was rapidly eliminated and remained in the therapeutic range for only 0.4 and 1.5 hr, respectively. Models of repeated oral dosing at 100 mg/kg every 6 hr predict that therapeutic plasma concentration will be maintained for 31.7% (7.6 hr) of a 24-hr period. More frequent dosing would be required to maintain continuous therapeutic concentrations but would be impractical in a wildlife rehabilitation setting. Further pharmacodynamic studies to evaluate the duration of action of EACA in elephant seals and a prospective, placebo-controlled study are needed to determine if EACA is effective in decreasing bleeding associated with prepatent Otostrongylus arteritis and other bleeding disorders in this species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tissue-cyst forming coccidia in the family Sarcocystidae are etiologic agents of protozoal encephalitis in marine mammals including the federally listed Southern sea otter ( Enhydra lutris ). California sea lions ( Zalophus californianus ), whose coastal habitat overlaps with sea otters, are definitive hosts for coccidian protozoa provisionally named Coccidia A, B and C. While Coccidia A and B have unknown clinical effects on aquatic wildlife hosts, Coccidia C is associated with severe protozoal disease in harbor seals ( Phoca vitulina ). In this study, we conducted surveillance for protozoal infection and fecal shedding in hospitalized and free-ranging California sea lions on the Pacific Coast and examined oocyst morphology and phenotypic characteristics of isolates via mouse bioassay and cell culture. Coccidia A and B were shed in similar frequency, particularly by yearlings. Oocysts shed by one free-ranging sea lion sampled at Año Nuevo State Park in California were previously unidentified in sea lions and were most similar to coccidia infecting Guadalupe fur seals ( Arctocephalus townsendi ) diagnosed with protozoal disease in Oregon (USA). Sporulated Coccidia A and B oocysts did not replicate in three strains of mice or in African green monkey kidney cells. However, cultivation experiments revealed that the inoculum of fecally-derived Coccidia A and B oocysts additionally contained organisms with genetic and antigenic similarity to Sarcocystis neurona ; despite the absence of detectable free sporocysts in fecal samples by microscopic examination. In addition to the further characterization of Coccidia A and B in free-ranging and hospitalized sea lions, these results provide evidence of a new role for sea lions as putative mechanical vectors of S. neurona , or S. neurona -like species. Future work is needed to clarify the distribution, taxonomical status, and pathogenesis of these parasites in sea lions and other marine mammals that share their the near-shore marine environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Marine Mammal Center (TMMC) cares for malnourished California sea lion (CSL) ( Zalophus californianus) pups and yearlings every year. Hypoglycemia is a common consequence of malnutrition in young CSLs. Administering dextrose during a hypoglycemic crisis is vital to recovery. Traditional veterinary approaches to treat hypoglycemia pose therapeutic challenges in otariids, as vascular access and catheter maintenance can be difficult. The current approach to a hypoglycemic episode at TMMC is to administer dextrose intravenously (IV) by medically trained personnel. Intraperitoneal (IP) dextrose administration is an attractive alternative to IV administration because volunteer staff with basic training can administer treatment instead of waiting for trained staff to treat. This study compares the effects of IV, IP, and no dextrose administration on serum glucose and insulin in clinically healthy, euglycemic CSL yearlings. Three groups of animals, consisting of five sea lions each, were treated with 500 mg/kg dextrose using one of the following routes: IV, IP, or no dextrose (control). A jugular catheter was placed, and blood samples were collected at times 0, 5, 15, 30, 60, 120, 180, and 240 min after dextrose administration. IV dextrose administration resulted in an increase of serum glucose concentrations from a baseline level of approximately 150 mg/dl to a peak of approximately 350 mg/dl. The resulting hyperglycemia persisted for approximately 2 hr and was associated with an attenuated plasma insulin response compared with most terrestrial mammals. Intraperitoneal dextrose administration resulted in increases of serum glucose to approximately 200 mg/dl, which gradually declined to baseline by 2 hr after dextrose administration. These data suggest that the initial treatment of a hypoglycemic crisis in young malnourished CSLs can be accomplished with IP dextrose, thus enabling minimally trained volunteer staff to respond immediately to a crisis. Further studies are needed to determine the most appropriate long-term treatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Otarine herpesvirus 1 (OtHV1) is strongly associated with California sea lion (CSL, Zalophus californianus) urogenital carcinoma, the most common cancer documented in marine mammals. In addition to CSL, OtHV1 has also been found in association with carcinoma in South American fur seals ( Arctocephalus australis), demonstrating it can infect related species. Northern fur seals (NFS, Callorhinus ursinus) are sympatric with CSL, and copulation between these species has been observed; yet, there are no reports of urogenital carcinoma in NFS. We describe a new Otarine herpesvirus found in vaginal swabs from NFS, herein called OtHV4. Partial sequencing of the polymerase gene and the glycoprotein B gene revealed OtHV4 is closely related to OtHV1, with 95% homology in the region of polymerase sequenced, and phylogenetic analyses demonstrate that they are sister taxa. An OtHV4-specific hydrolysis probe quantitative PCR was developed and validated, and its use on vaginal swabs revealed 16 of 50 (32%) wild adult female NFS were positive for OtHV4. The identification of a virus highly similar to the carcinoma-associated OtHV1 in a sympatric species without carcinoma suggests that comparative genomics of OtHV1 and OtHV4 may identify candidate viral oncogenes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article offers information on a research on determining pharmacokinetics of tramadol hydrochloride and metabolite O-desmethyltramadol in California sea lion. Topics discussed include effect of pharmacokinetic of tramadol due to physiologic factors, analgesic effect of tramadol in sea lions, and efficacy of oral drug administration.

The article presents a study which examines the drug effectiveness and pharmacokinetics of ciprofloxacin as antimicrobial treatment for bacterial infections among California sea lions at the Marine Mammal Center in California. The study explores the pharmacokinetic study to assess the plasma concentrations of ciprofloxacin in California sea lions. The article also discusses the therapeutic antibacterial exposure of ciprofloxacin for susceptible bacterial organisms.

The article presents a case study which investigates the prevalence of the parasite known as Toxoplasma gondii among the sea lion population in the state of California. Topics discussed include the use of the archived records and samples from The Marine Mammal Center to obtain the relevant data, the use of the weighted proportion statistical tool to analyze the acquired data, and a detailed analysis of the results.

The article presents a case study which investigates the proliferation of the infectious fungus species which includes the Coccidioides and Blastomyces among the marine mammal population in North America. Topics discussed include the use of data from the case files of the various marine research institutes in California including The Marine Mammal Center, the use of established criteria in assessing the collected data, and a detailed analysis of the results.

The article provides information on a study which investigated the occurrence of acute renal failure and the mortality from leptospirosis in northern elephant seals in rehabilitation in the central California coast in 2011. Topics covered include the characteristic histologic lesions that were noted in the six animals examined, findings of the immunohistochemistry, bacterial culture and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) performed and the results of the pulsed-field gel electrophoresis conducted.

The article presents a validation study on the use of cellulose filter paper (FP) for quantifying whole blood total mercury (Hg) concentration. It mentions the use of Nobuto FP, whole blood from bottlenose dolphin or harbor seal, and phosphate-buffered saline treated filter paper HG concentrations. Also included are the recovery figures of soaked FP relative to whole blood for postelution and for eluate, and the least-squares linear regressions for soaked papers, postelution and for eluate.

The article offers information on a study performed to determine pharmacokinetics of ceftiofur crystalline-free acid for the California sea lion. It informs that plasma concentrations of ceftiofur, desfuroylceftiofur, and related metabolites were determined with the help of liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry. It was found that maximum plasma concentrations of ceftiofur were observed 24 hour postdosing.

The article discusses research which examined the association of Pasteurellaceae bacteria with lesions in wild pinnipeds in rehabilitation. Particular focus is given to the collection of samples from lesions in California sea lions and Pacific harbor seals. Findings showed that a pure culture of Bisgaardia genomospecies 1 was obtained from an abscess in a seal. The seal's pathogenic potential is indicated in the isolation of bacteria in pure culture from abscesses and osteomyelitis.

The article discusses the isolation of Cryptococcus albidus, a fungal species not often considered to be pathogenic, from a juvenile California sea lion, Zalophus californianus, rescued near San Francisco Bay, California. The pathogen was identified by an rDNA sequence from the lung. Infection with C. albidus was considered to have contributed to the death of this sea lion, along with concurrent bacterial pneumonia.

The article discusses the study which identifies the risk factors associated with perianesthetic mortality of California sea-lions undergoing rehabilitation. The study reviewed the hospital records of California sea lions which underwent general anesthesia or sedation from 2004 until 2008. The study also reviewed the risk factors including age class, duration of anesthetic period, and atropine premedication. Results show that the most common time of death was during anesthetic maintenance and that the prevalence of fatalities during anesthesia was 3.4%.

The article examines the link between domoic acid-related strandings of the seasonally migratory California sea lion Zalophus californianus and regional occurrences of domoic acid-producing diatoms in Monterey Bay, California. Materials and methods used in the study are detailed. The abundance of toxic Pseudo-nitzschia in the study area during the study period is determined. Results indicate that the domoic acid level is highly correlated with cell abundances of two toxic Pseudo-nitzschia species.

The article compares the quality of magnetic resonance images (MRI) to the volumes of brain structures from life and postmortem of California sea lions with clinical signs of domoic acid toxicosis. The source and processing of samples are described. Changes in image quality of the brain as postmortem time increased were revealed through FLASH sequences of sea lions. The study suggests that the FLASH sequence was not a reliable MRI sequence for postmorterm evaluation of the brain due to lack of contrast.

The article discusses a study on an adult female California sea lion (Zalophus californianus) that was found in central California with a small glossal polypoid mass on gross necropsy. According to the authors, the mass was consistent with a fibropapilloma and intranuclear inclusions were located in the endothelial cells that lined the small arterioles within the mass. Sequence analysis identified the virus as a new strain of polyomavirus, tentatively named California sea lion polyomavirus 1.

The article presents a study that deals with a respiratory coronavirus (CoV) detected from tissues archived during a pneumonia epizootic in free-ranging Pacific harbor seals Phoca vitulina richardsii. Five carcasses of the harbor seals showed pulmonary congestion, consolidation, and hemorrhage using necropsy. The authors used degenerate polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for nidoviral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase to detect the coronavirus in archived tissues from one of the five seals. The CoV detected was described as a novel, divergent member of the CoV group 1a.

The article presents a study which evaluates if pre-existing protocols for evaluating plasma clearance of iohexol in dogs and cats that accurately estimate the glomerular filtration rate (GFR) could be applied directly to free-ranging California sea lions without alteration. The study involved 8 sea lions undergoing rehabilitation at The Marine Mammal Center in California. Sea lions were selected for inclusion in this prospective study on a criteria that all of them are required anesthesia for radiography and ultrasonography. It concludes that plasma iohexol cannot simply be applied to California sea lions due to nonlinearity between samples and due to the effect of dive reflex induced during anesthesia. It adds that an adverse reaction to iodinated contrast media can occur in a sea lion.

The article discusses the study on a male neonatal harbor seal (Phoca vitulina) with neurologic signs of tremors, ataxia, and abnormal proprioception of the brain. The seal has then undergone magnetic resonance (MI) imaging of the brain to define the cause of the abnormalities. MR imaging has determined occipital bone dysplasia with herniation of the cerebellum and atlantoaxial subluxation with the compression of the spinal cord. Moreover, the findings also correlate with histopathology changes including cerebellar gliosis and axonal degeneration of myelin sheaths. It notes that the progression of the clinical signs with dysplasia and atlantoaxial subluxation can be prevented though surgical intervention.

The endangered Western population of the Steller sea lion declined for three decades for uncertain reasons. We present baseline data of metal concentrations in pups as a first step towards investigating the potential threat of developmental exposures to contaminants. Seven metals were investigated: arsenic, cadmium, silver, aluminum, mercury, lead and vanadium. Vanadium was detected in only a single blubber sample. Mercury appears to be the most toxicologically significant metal with concentrations in the liver well above the current action level for mercury in fish. The concentrations of aluminum, arsenic, silver, cadmium and lead were present in one-fourth to two-thirds of all samples and were at either comparable or below concentrations previously reported. Neither gender nor region had a significant effect on metal burdens. Future work should consider metal concentrations in juveniles and adults and toxicological studies need to be performed to begin to assess the toxicity of these metals. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The article discusses the effects of climate change on the health of marine animals in the Arctic regions. Predicted effects of climate change were the lack of integrated long term data on health, diseases, and toxicant effects in Arctic marine mammals health. It notes that there were direct and indirect effects of climate change on animal health which include changes in pathogen transmission because of variety factors, effects on body condition and increased human habitation in the Arctic. The impact of climate change on marine animals health varies among highly and less sensitive species.

Abstract: Top-trophic predators like California sea lions bioaccumulate high levels of persistent fat-soluble pollutants that may provoke physiological impairments such as endocrine or vitamins A and E disruption. We measured circulating levels of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) in 12 healthy juvenile California sea lions captured on Año Nuevo Island, California, in 2002. We investigated the relationship between the contamination by PCBs and DDT and the circulating levels of vitamins A and E and thyroid hormones (thyroxine, T4 and triiodothyronine, T3). Serum concentrations of total PCBs (∑PCBs) and total DDT were 14±9mg/kg and 28±19mg/kg lipid weight, respectively. PCB toxic equivalents (∑PCB TEQs) were 320±170ng/kg lipid weight. Concentrations of ∑PCBs and ∑PCB TEQs in serum lipids were negatively correlated (p<0.05) with serum vitamin A and T3, potentially reflecting PCB-related toxicity. A slight but not significant negative correlation (p<0.1) was observed between serum T4 and the levels of ∑PCBs and ∑PCB TEQs. Conversely, no relationship was evident between the contaminant concentrations and vitamin E (p>0.1). As juvenile California sea lions are useful sentinels of coastal contamination, the high levels encountered in their serum is cause for concern about the ecosystem health of the area. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Wild California sea lions (Zalophus californianus) have an unusually high prevalence of neoplasms (18% of stranded dead adults) and high levels of contaminants. The contribution of organochlorine (OC) tissue burdens to the probability of sea lions dying from carcinoma was explored using a logistic regression model. Levels of PCBs and DDTs were determined in blubber of sea lions diagnosed with metastatic carcinoma and animals that had died from non-carcinoma-related incidents (e.g., gunshot, domoic acid poisoning). Animals with carcinoma had higher mean concentrations (based on wet weight) of PCBs and DDTs (more than 85% and 30% higher, respectively) in blubber than did sea lions without carcinoma; the highest concentrations of OCs in the sea lions affected with carcinoma were measured in the males. Blubber thickness was significantly different between the two groups of sea lions, but after controlling for this difference, there was still a significant effect of PCBs, but not DDTs, on the probability of sea lions dying with carcinoma. Age, sex, mass and length did not affect the probability of dying from carcinoma. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The article presents a case study of an underweight female northern elephant seal or Mirounga angustirostris which was admitted to The Marine Mammal Center in Sausalito, California due to malnutrition. The standard tube feeding was administered to the elephant wherein the animal's clinical signs shows progressed such as weight gain. The animal underwent laparoscopic gastropexy for the surgical correction of a hiatal hernia. It cites the successful outcomes of the animal's surgery.

Abstract: In 2008 two male sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus) stranded along the northern California coast with large amounts of fishing net scraps, rope, and other plastic debris in their stomachs. One animal had a ruptured stomach, the other was emaciated, and gastric impaction was suspected as the cause of both deaths. There were 134 different types of nets in these two animals, all made of floating material, varying in size from 10cm2 to about 16m2. The variability in size and age of the pieces suggests the material was ingested from the surface as debris rather than bitten off from active gear. These strandings demonstrate that ingestion of marine debris can be fatal to large whales, in addition to the well documented entanglements known to impact these species. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]