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Purpose: Humans remain unsuccessful in their attempts to achieve environmental sustainability, despite decades of scientific awareness and political efforts toward that end. This paper suggests a fresh conceptualization, one that focuses on education, offers a fuller explanation for our lack of success and calls attention to alternatives. Design/methodology/approach: The authors first critically review mainstream approaches that have been used to achieve environmental sustainability, then introduce an alternative that the authors call the cultural approach. The authors finally discuss how educational research should be re-articulated based on the cultural approach. Findings: The authors identified three mainstream approaches – the technological, cognitive approach and behaviorist – all of which function to reproduce modern mainstream culture. In contrast, the cultural approach assumes modern mainstream culture as the root cause of environmental unsustainability and aims to rearticulate it. To elaborate a cultural approach, the authors recommend education scholars to (1) bring attention to the role of culture in sustainability and (2) identify education practices that are potentially useful for enacting a cultural shift, primarily developing richer synergies between qualitative and quantitative research. Originality/value: Unlike many previous studies in the field of education, the authors’ account highlights how current mainstream approaches used for current global education policymaking often merely reproduces modern mainstream culture and accelerates the environmental crisis. It thus proposes to redirect educational research for a cultural shift, one that allows human society to move beyond the comforting rhetoric of sustainability and face the survivability imperative.

Purpose: Amidst ongoing attempts to think beyond Western frameworks for education, there is a tendency to overlook Japan, perhaps because it appears highly modern. This is striking given that some prominent strands of Japanese philosophy have formulated an explicit and exacting challenge to the core onto-epistemic premises of modern Western thought. It is also surprising because Japanese educational practices have resulted in some of the highest achievement outcomes—both cognitive and noncognitive—found anywhere in the world and inculcate a worldview that is distinct.Design/Approach/Methods: Herein, we thus attempt to make visible the potential contribution of modern Japanese philosophy by outlining some of the core ideas, then turn to sketch resonances with and responses to other projects outlined in this Special Issue. Our approach is elucidation through relational comparison.Findings: Through this process, we suggest that the notion of self-negation as a mode of learning may be helpful in explaining why—at the empirical level—the outlook of Japanese students, and perhaps other East Asian students, diverge markedly from their Western peers. Yet we also find that an attempt, such as ours, to link divergent onto-epistemic thought to alternative empirical hypotheses quickly gives rise to various doubts and discomforts, even among otherwise sympathetic scholars.Originality/Value: In directly responding to these doubts, one original contribution of our piece is to show just how difficult it may ultimately be to divest from the symbolic foundations already laid by Western liberalism: Even if divergent thought can be imagined and different cultural narratives explored, dominant readings of empirical “realities” continue to be entrapped in the logic laid by Western liberalism.

ABSTRACTBamboos tend to become abundant associated with human activities and possibly affect ecosystem dynamics including vegetation water cycles. We examined the effects of thinning on canopy transpiration (Ec) for a dense, unmanaged (i.e. unthinned) Moso bamboo stand based on sap flow measurements. We unselectively thinned 45% of the culms during summer in a study plot (i.e. the first thinning). During the next spring, many new culms were generated in the plot and a comparable number of culms were thinned (i.e. the second thinning). After the first thinning, mean stand sap flux (Js) increased immediately by approximately 60% at a given potential evaporation (Ep); therefore, the Ecof the thinned stand reached 90% that of the pre-thinning condition. During the next year, after the second thinning, the Jsof the current year culms was generally more than twice that of the pre-thinning stand at a given Ep, whereas the Jsof the older culms decreased again to the level of the pre-thinning condition. The overall Ecwas 78% that of the pre-thinning condition. Our results suggest that moderate thinning of dense Moso bamboo stands may not have major effects on Ec; thus, intensive thinning is required when the aim is to control water loss from bamboo stands. The relative insensitivity of water use in bamboo stands after thinning resulted from dynamic changes in water use in the individual culms. These processes might be related to the clonal nature of bamboo where culms are structurally and physiologically interconnected.

ABSTRACTThere exists a significant incongruity between scientific knowledge and ordinary perceptions concerning the relation between forest and water (e.g. droughts and floods). Traditionally, forest hydrologists interpreted this incongruity using the deficit model, i.e. this incongruity is viewed as one that must be overcome through efforts to disseminate scientific knowledge more widely across society. However, one previous study suggested an alternative interpretation for the incongruity observed in Japan: the incongruity is induced by an enduring conflict between modern science and indigenous culture, one which purportedly promotes an “emotional” outlook to nature. This review attempts to clarify this alternative interpretation by utilizing a diverse range of disciplinary perspectives. We first clarify, using psychology and philosophy, that the “emotional” outlook of Japanese is rooted in a notion of self which is interdependent. Reviewing historical studies, we then find that the interdependent self was replaced by the notion of the independent self in the West in the Middle Ages. Since modern science was born out of this historical context in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, modern science assumes the same grammar of thought, i.e. begins with the notion of an independent self. We finally reveal that contemporary forest hydrology also has reproduced this grammar. We thus conclude that this difference in ontological grammar between contemporary forest hydrology and that of the ordinary public in Japan is a major cause for the incongruity between scientific knowledge and ordinary perceptions there. From this novel ontological perspective, we envision an alternative future of forest hydrology in Japan.

Previous studies have demonstrated a clear relationship between diameter at breast height (DBH) and tree transpiration (QT) in multi-specific broadleaved forests. However, these studies were conducted with a limited range of tree sizes and species, and thus many multi-specific broadleaved forests fall outside these conditions. Therefore, this study examined the relationship between DBH and QTin a warm-temperate multi-specific broadleaved forest (n= 12 species) with a wide range of tree sizes (5.0–70.0 cm DBH) using the Granier-type heat dissipation method. The results showed that, although sap flow density varied between individual trees and species, there was a significant relationship between log QTand log DBH (r2= 0.66, P< 0.001) because of the strong dependence of sapwood area on DBH. This study confirmed the applicability of the relationship for the stand transpiration (EC) estimates even in a multi-specific broadleaved forest with a wide variation in DBH. Our results also revealed that selecting the sample trees in descending order of DBH effectively reduced potential errors in ECestimates for a specific sample size, as larger trees contribute more to EC. This information should be useful for future studies investigating the transpiration of multi-specific broadleaved forests, reducing errors during the scaling-up procedure.

AbstractStand transpiration (E) estimated using the sap flux methods is affected by the azimuthal, radial, and tree-to-tree variations of sap flux. Although several studies have examined the relative importance of the three variations in estimating E, the seasonality of the three variations remains unknown. In the current study, we attempted to clarify whether the relative importance of these three variations could show seasonal changes. Using sap flux data measured in a subtropical cloud forest from August 2010 to July 2011, we calculated the differences resulting from omitting the three variations in estimating E. The effects of the three variations in estimating Eshowed seasonality. The azimuthal and tree-to-tree variations were more pronounced during winter, whereas the radial variation was more pronounced during summer. However, the effect of tree-to-tree variation was consistently much larger than the other two variations throughout the study period. The tree-to-tree variation is more important in estimating Emonthly, seasonally and annually than both the azimuthal and radial variations, although all three variations have shown seasonality. In addition, the sensor allocation for summer would be acceptable for the practical estimation of Eif aiming at the long time scale.

AbstractPrevious studies have demonstrated a clear relationship between diameter at breast height (DBH) and tree transpiration (QT) in multi-specific broadleaved forests. However, these studies were conducted with a limited range of tree sizes and species, and thus many multi-specific broadleaved forests fall outside these conditions. Therefore, this study examined the relationship between DBH and QTin a warm-temperate multi-specific broadleaved forest (n= 12 species) with a wide range of tree sizes (5.0–70.0 cm DBH) using the Granier-type heat dissipation method. The results showed that, although sap flow density varied between individual trees and species, there was a significant relationship between log QTand log DBH (r2= 0.66, P< 0.001) because of the strong dependence of sapwood area on DBH. This study confirmed the applicability of the relationship for the stand transpiration (EC) estimates even in a multi-specific broadleaved forest with a wide variation in DBH. Our results also revealed that selecting the sample trees in descending order of DBH effectively reduced potential errors in ECestimates for a specific sample size, as larger trees contribute more to EC. This information should be useful for future studies investigating the transpiration of multi-specific broadleaved forests, reducing errors during the scaling-up procedure.

Stand transpiration (E) estimated using the sap flux methods is affected by the azimuthal, radial, and tree-to-tree variations of sap flux. Although several studies have examined the relative importance of the three variations in estimating E, the seasonality of the three variations remains unknown. In the current study, we attempted to clarify whether the relative importance of these three variations could show seasonal changes. Using sap flux data measured in a subtropical cloud forest from August 2010 to July 2011, we calculated the differences resulting from omitting the three variations in estimating E. The effects of the three variations in estimating Eshowed seasonality. The azimuthal and tree-to-tree variations were more pronounced during winter, whereas the radial variation was more pronounced during summer. However, the effect of tree-to-tree variation was consistently much larger than the other two variations throughout the study period. The tree-to-tree variation is more important in estimating Emonthly, seasonally and annually than both the azimuthal and radial variations, although all three variations have shown seasonality. In addition, the sensor allocation for summer would be acceptable for the practical estimation of Eif aiming at the long time scale.

Canopy transpiration (EC) varies among forest stands with different structures. To evaluate different ECfor Japanese cypress we observed ECfor 5 months, by use of the sap flow technique, in two adjacent stands of different ages with contrasting structures. Mean diameter at breast height was 13.5 and 44.6 cm and stem density was 2100 and 350 trees ha−1for the Sakuta and Hiwada plots, respectively. Mean ECmeasured was 1.3 mm day−1for the Sakuta plot and 0.7 mm day−1for the Hiwada plot (or 53 % of that for the Sakuta plot). This difference between ECwas caused by differences between both mean stand sap flux density (JS) and stand sapwood area (AS__stand): JSfor the Hiwada plot was 69 % of that for the Sakuta plot and AS_standfor the Hiwada plot was 75 % of that for the Sakuta plot. The difference between JSwas primarily caused by different reference JSfor given meteorological conditions, not by the different response of JSto meteorological conditions. Previous studies of coniferous plantation forests in Japan reported that differences between ECamong stands with different structures were mainly caused by different AS_stand. This study revealed this is not always true, and that differences between JSshould also be considered when predicting differences between ECamong stands with different structures.

AbstractCanopy transpiration (EC) varies among forest stands with different structures. To evaluate different ECfor Japanese cypress we observed ECfor 5 months, by use of the sap flow technique, in two adjacent stands of different ages with contrasting structures. Mean diameter at breast height was 13.5 and 44.6 cm and stem density was 2100 and 350 trees ha−1for the Sakuta and Hiwada plots, respectively. Mean ECmeasured was 1.3 mm day−1for the Sakuta plot and 0.7 mm day−1for the Hiwada plot (or 53 % of that for the Sakuta plot). This difference between ECwas caused by differences between both mean stand sap flux density (JS) and stand sapwood area (AS__stand): JSfor the Hiwada plot was 69 % of that for the Sakuta plot and AS_standfor the Hiwada plot was 75 % of that for the Sakuta plot. The difference between JSwas primarily caused by different reference JSfor given meteorological conditions, not by the different response of JSto meteorological conditions. Previous studies of coniferous plantation forests in Japan reported that differences between ECamong stands with different structures were mainly caused by different AS_stand. This study revealed this is not always true, and that differences between JSshould also be considered when predicting differences between ECamong stands with different structures.

AbstractPrevious studies have revealed that the sapwood area at stand scale (A) is an important factor determining changes in transpiration by canopy trees (E). This study examined changes in Afor four to six years after thinning of two Japanese cedar and two cypress plantation sites, each having three or four plots with different thinning intensities and one control plot. We focused on whether there was a difference in A(δA) between a thinned plot and a control plot during the experimental period. We observed increased radial stem growth for plots with low stem density (N) due to intensive thinning. However, δAdid not decrease to zero during the experimental period for any plot. The increased radial stem growth was not large enough to cancel the effect of low Ndue to thinning. These results imply that a lower Efor thinned plantations as compared to non-thinned plantationsis remains for several years (more than 10 years, according to our results) after thinning and that thinning could be an effective method of reducing water consumption by canopy trees.

Previous studies have revealed that the sapwood area at stand scale (A) is an important factor determining changes in transpiration by canopy trees (E). This study examined changes in Afor four to six years after thinning of two Japanese cedar and two cypress plantation sites, each having three or four plots with different thinning intensities and one control plot. We focused on whether there was a difference in A(δA) between a thinned plot and a control plot during the experimental period. We observed increased radial stem growth for plots with low stem density (N) due to intensive thinning. However, δAdid not decrease to zero during the experimental period for any plot. The increased radial stem growth was not large enough to cancel the effect of low Ndue to thinning. These results imply that a lower Efor thinned plantations as compared to non-thinned plantationsis remains for several years (more than 10 years, according to our results) after thinning and that thinning could be an effective method of reducing water consumption by canopy trees.

In deciduous forests, leaf‐out and leaf‐fall determine the durations of canopy transpiration and photosynthesis and affect interannual variations in energy, water, and carbon exchanges. Despite numerous studies on the interannual variation in vegetation phenology and its modelling for boreal and temperate deciduous forests, few studies have examined these topics for tropical deciduous forests. We quantified the extent of interannual variation in the transpiration onset dates in a teak plantation in northern Thailand, one of the major deciduous forests in Thailand, on the basis of 8 years of sap‐flow measurements and developed an empirical model to predict their interannual variation through correlation analysis with environmental variables. Interannual variation in the transpiration onset date at this site spanned 41 days over the 8‐year observation period. The transpiration onset date corresponded to the date when the leaf area index reached 0·2–0·4. Interannual variation in the transpiration onset date was reproduced by the date when relative extractable water in the soil layer of 0–0·6 m depth became greater than 0·2 with a root mean square error of 10 days. The interannual variation in the transpiration onset dates for the studied tropical deciduous forest site was greater than that of deciduous forests in temperate and boreal regions, implying the considerable potential effect on annual energy, water, and carbon exchanges between vegetation and the atmosphere. Our results also suggest that the use of soil moisture would allow predictions of interannual variations in the transpiration onset and the leaf‐out for deciduous forests in tropical regions. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

AbstractSap flow techniques are practical tools for estimating tree transpiration. Though many previous studies using sap flow techniques did not consider azimuthal variations of sap flux density (Fd) on xylem trunk to estimate tree transpiration, a few studies reported that ignoring the azimuthal variations in Fdcould cause large errors in tree transpiration estimates for some tree species. Therefore, examining azimuthal variations in Fdfor major plantation tree species is critical for estimating tree transpiration. Using the thermal dissipation method, we examined azimuthal variations in Fdin six trees of Japanese cypress Chamaecyparis obtusa(Sieb. et Zucc.) Endl., which is one of the most common plantation tree species in Japan. We recorded considerable variations among Fdat four different azimuthal directions. The Fdvalue for one aspect was more than 100% larger than those for the other aspects. We calculated differences between tree transpiration estimates based on Fdfor one to three azimuthal directions and those based on Fdfor four aspects. The differences relative to tree transpiration estimates based on Fdfor four aspects were typically 30, 20, and 10% in accordance with the Fdfor one, two, and three measurement aspects, respectively. This finding indicates that ignoring azimuthal variations could cause large errors in tree transpiration estimates for Japanese cypress.

Abstract: Sap flow techniques are practical tools for estimating tree transpiration. Though many previous studies using sap flow techniques did not consider azimuthal variations of sap flux density (F d) on xylem trunk to estimate tree transpiration, a few studies reported that ignoring the azimuthal variations in F d could cause large errors in tree transpiration estimates for some tree species. Therefore, examining azimuthal variations in F d for major plantation tree species is critical for estimating tree transpiration. Using the thermal dissipation method, we examined azimuthal variations in F d in six trees of Japanese cypress Chamaecyparis obtusa (Sieb. et Zucc.) Endl., which is one of the most common plantation tree species in Japan. We recorded considerable variations among F d at four different azimuthal directions. The F d value for one aspect was more than 100% larger than those for the other aspects. We calculated differences between tree transpiration estimates based on F d for one to three azimuthal directions and those based on F d for four aspects. The differences relative to tree transpiration estimates based on F d for four aspects were typically 30, 20, and 10% in accordance with the F d for one, two, and three measurement aspects, respectively. This finding indicates that ignoring azimuthal variations could cause large errors in tree transpiration estimates for Japanese cypress.

Converting coniferous plantations to broad‐leaved forests is believed to result in increased runoff in Japan. This study examined low‐flow changes in runoff in the Tatsunokuchi–Minami catchment, located in a region with summer precipitation, caused by the conversion of a coniferous plantation to a broad‐leaved forest. We compared the flow duration curves for the coniferous plantation period with those for the broad‐leaved forest period. We observed no evidence of increased low flows according to the change in forest type. Thus, the commonly held belief was not supported by the results from a summer precipitation region with respect to low‐flow rates. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Abstract: In recent years, moso bamboo (Phyllostachys pubescens) forest areas in Japan have rapidly expanded, and bamboo is now invading nearby natural or plantation forests. To date, only one study has examined the rainfall interception of a moso bamboo forest. In that study, it was reported that the interception ratio (interception/rainfall) of the bamboo forest did not exceed the interception ratios of other natural and plantation forests (n = 4) in Japan. To expand the current state of knowledge about rainfall interception of bamboo forests, we measured throughfall and stemflow at another bamboo forest site. Annual rainfall (Rf), throughfall (Tf), and stemflow (Sf) during the measurement period were 2,105, 1,556, and 322 mm, respectively. Annual rainfall interception at the plot (I) was 228 mm. Tf/Rf, Sf/Rf, and I/Rf were 73.9, 15.3, 10.8%, respectively. I/Rf was less than 20% throughout the year except in October, the month with lowest rainfall. We also summarized rainfall interception data from 19 other natural and plantation forests. The I/Rf value of our site did not exceed the I/Rf values of these natural and plantation forests (n = 19). Our data will be useful for assessing changes in water resources that result from replacement of natural or plantation forests by bamboo forests.

AbstractIn recent years, moso bamboo (Phyllostachys pubescens) forest areas in Japan have rapidly expanded, and bamboo is now invading nearby natural or plantation forests. To date, only one study has examined the rainfall interception of a moso bamboo forest. In that study, it was reported that the interception ratio (interception/rainfall) of the bamboo forest did not exceed the interception ratios of other natural and plantation forests (n= 4) in Japan. To expand the current state of knowledge about rainfall interception of bamboo forests, we measured throughfall and stemflow at another bamboo forest site. Annual rainfall (Rf), throughfall (Tf), and stemflow (Sf) during the measurement period were 2,105, 1,556, and 322 mm, respectively. Annual rainfall interception at the plot (I) was 228 mm. Tf/Rf, Sf/Rf, and I/Rfwere 73.9, 15.3, 10.8%, respectively. I/Rfwas less than 20% throughout the year except in October, the month with lowest rainfall. We also summarized rainfall interception data from 19 other natural and plantation forests. The I/Rfvalue of our site did not exceed the I/Rfvalues of these natural and plantation forests (n= 19). Our data will be useful for assessing changes in water resources that result from replacement of natural or plantation forests by bamboo forests.

AbstractSoil CO2levels reflect CO2production and transport in soil and provide valuable information about soil CO2dynamics. However, extracting information from soil CO2profiles is often difficult because of the complexity of these profiles. In this study, we constructed a simple numerical model that simulated soil CO2dynamics and performed sensitivity analyses for CO2production rates, soil water content and temperature, and gas diffusivity at the soil surface to clarify the relationships among these parameters. Increased soil surface CO2flux did not always coincide with higher soil CO2concentrations; increased CO2production at shallow depths had little effect on soil CO2concentrations, while the opposite may be true for high levels of soil water content. Higher soil CO2concentration did not always coincide with greater soil surface CO2flux; under high soil water conditions, soil surface CO2flux sometimes decreased despite increased soil CO2concentration. Increases in soil water content did not always enhance both soil surface CO2flux and soil CO2concentration. Under high soil water conditions, increases in soil water content could lower soil surface CO2flux and increase soil CO2concentration. Increases in soil temperature resulted in greater soil surface CO2flux and higher soil CO2concentration in our simulation (extremely high temperatures were not assumed in this study). Gas diffusivity in very shallow layers did affect, albeit weakly, soil CO2concentration. The findings of this study may help direct future observations and aid in the interpretation of their results.