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High-energy diffraction microscopy (HEDM) combined with in situ mechanical testing is a powerful nondestructive technique for tracking the evolving microstructure within polycrystalline materials during deformation. This technique relies on a sophisticated analysis of X-ray diffraction patterns to produce a three-dimensional reconstruction of grains and other microstructural features within the interrogated volume. However, it is known that HEDM can fail to identify certain microstructural features, particularly smaller grains or twinned regions. Characterization of the identical sample volume using high-resolution surface-specific techniques, particularly electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD), can not only provide additional microstructure information about the interrogated volume but also highlight opportunities for improvement of the HEDM reconstruction algorithms. In this study, a sample fabricated from undeformed “low solvus, high refractory” nickel-based superalloy was scanned using HEDM. The volume interrogated by HEDM was then carefully characterized using a combination of surface-specific techniques, including epi-illumination optical microscopy, zero-tilt secondary and backscattered electron imaging, scanning white light interferometry, and high-precision EBSD. Custom data fusion protocols were developed to integrate and align the microstructure maps captured by these surface-specific techniques and HEDM. The raw and processed data from HEDM and serial sectioning have been made available via the Materials Data Facility (MDF) at https://doi.org/10.18126/4y0p-v604for further investigation.

There is an international movement towards integrated care. This systematized literature review studied healthcare chaplaincy spiritual care interventions that support adult mental health by integrating health and social care. Seventeen relevant studies were found. One analysed individual and family care in a general hospital. Twelve described one-to-one community-based interventions, of which ten concerned general practice healthcare centres. Four involved groups supporting mental health in hospitals or community-centres. Two studies used qualitative approaches, seven quantitative and eight mixed methods. The quality of evidence for the outcomes of interventions was examined. The review found that studies demonstrated shifts in healthcare professionals’ working practices anticipated by Paterson (2014), from hospital towards community bases, from treatment of individuals towards empowering service users to self-manage their health, and in mental health contexts from treatment of individuals towards care in groups.

Microwave heating technology has attracted great attention in biorefineries to generate biofuels and biomass-derived chemicals. NaOH and H2SO4pretreatments are often applied to improve the process efficiency. Traditional heating pretreatments require long reaction times and contribute to rapid sugar degradation. Although effective, H2SO4pretreatment suffers from the disadvantages of equipment corrosion, inhibitors generation, and waste water production. Herein, we performed NaOH, H2SO4, and FeCl3pretreatments on sugar cane bagasse under microwave heating, and compared their effects on the biomass physical features, chemical compositions, and sugar release during pretreatment process. Our results showed that high amounts of sugar were obtained, and xylose and glucose were selectively recovered in the pretreatment liquor within 5–10 min of microwave heating by changing pretreatment media. NaOH efficiently fractionated biomass, generated xylose as the major product in pretreatment liquor, and left the solid residue more digestible. H2SO4and FeCl3effectively degraded both the hemicellulose and cellulose, producing glucose as the major product in the pretreatment liquor. Compared with H2SO4, FeCl3pretreatment more efficiently removed lignin and recovered 48% glucose within only 5 min. Biomass chemical composition and morphological characteristics were studied and compared, confirming that microwave assisted FeCl3pretreatment is a new and feasible approach to replace H2SO4for biofuel and biomass-derived chemicals production.

East Africa experiences chronic food insecurity, with levels varying from year-to-year across the region. Given that much can be done to prevent this level of suffering before it happens, humanitarian agencies monitor early indicators of food insecurity to trigger early action. Forecasts of total seasonal rainfall are one tool used to monitor and anticipate food security outcomes. Factors beyond rainfall, such as conflict, are key determinants of whether lack of rainfall can become a problem. In this paper, we present a quantitative analysis that isolates the value of rainfall information in anticipating food security outcomes across livelihood groups in East Africa. Comparing observed rainfall and temperature with food security classifications, we quantify how much the chance of food insecurity increases when rainfall is low. Results differed dramatically among livelihood groups; pastoralists in East Africa more frequently experience food insecurity than do non-pastoralists, and 12 months of low rainfall greatly increases the chances of “crisis” and “emergency” food security in pastoralist regions. In non-pastoralist regions, the relationship with total rainfall is not as strong. Similar results were obtained for livelihood groups in Kenya and Ethiopia, with slightly differing results in Somalia. Given this, we evaluated the relevance of monitoring and forecasting seasonal total rainfall. Our quantitative results demonstrate that six months of rainfall observations can already indicate a heightened risk of food insecurity, a full six months before conditions deteriorate. Combining rainfall observations with seasonal forecasts can further change the range of possible outcomes to indicate higher or lower risk of food insecurity, but the added value of seasonal forecasts is noticeable only when they show a strong probability of below-normal rainfall.

Cocoa pod husk (CPH) is the main by-product (ca. 70–75% weight of whole fruit) of the cocoa harvest, an important and economic crop in developing countries. It is a rich source of minerals (particularly potassium), fibre (including lignin, cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin) and antioxidants (e.g. phenolic acids). An existing practise is the return of CPH to soil with potential benefits (or disadvantages) for cocoa productivity and soil sustainability that have not been fully characterised. Currently, alternative low-value applications of CPH include its use as animal feed, as a starting material for soap making and activated carbon. Other biotechnological valorisation potentials for CPH and its fractions include the production of bio-fuels and their incorporation in food systems. Physical, chemical or biological pre-treatment approaches are needed in order to achieve desirable fractions in a cost-effective and sustainable manner for novel applications in food and non-food sectors.

Microbial communities are essential to a wide range of ecologically and industrially important processes. To control or predict how these communities function, we require a better understanding of the factors which influence microbial community productivity. Here, we combine functional resource use assays with a biodiversity–ecosystem functioning (BEF) experiment to determine whether the functional traits of constituent species can be used to predict community productivity. We quantified the abilities of 12 bacterial species to metabolise components of lignocellulose and then assembled these species into communities of varying diversity and composition to measure their productivity growing on lignocellulose, a complex natural substrate. A positive relationship between diversity and community productivity was caused by a selection effect whereby more diverse communities were more likely to contain two species that significantly improved community productivity. Analysis of functional traits revealed that the observed selection effect was primarily driven by the abilities of these species to degrade ß-glucan. Our results indicate that by identifying the key functional traits underlying microbial community productivity we could improve industrial bioprocessing of complex natural substrates.

Microbial communities are essential to a wide range of ecologically and industrially important processes. To control or predict how these communities function, we require a better understanding of the factors which influence microbial community productivity. Here, we combine functional resource use assays with a biodiversity–ecosystem functioning (BEF) experiment to determine whether the functional traits of constituent species can be used to predict community productivity. We quantified the abilities of 12 bacterial species to metabolise components of lignocellulose and then assembled these species into communities of varying diversity and composition to measure their productivity growing on lignocellulose, a complex natural substrate. A positive relationship between diversity and community productivity was caused by a selection effect whereby more diverse communities were more likely to contain two species that significantly improved community productivity. Analysis of functional traits revealed that the observed selection effect was primarily driven by the abilities of these species to degrade β-glucan. Our results indicate that by identifying the key functional traits underlying microbial community productivity we could improve industrial bioprocessing of complex natural substrates.

Co‐occurring hazards present unparalleled challenges to development and disaster recovery. In this study, we investigate the relationship between anomalous heat in the aftermath of tropical cyclones in the eastern Caribbean between 1991 and 2020. We analyze the spatial patterns of anomalous heat index (HI) values for 53 tropical storms and hurricanes using a Lagrangian analysis framework. Furthermore, we analyze temporal patterns of 205 city‐storms pairings. The spatial patterns displayed distinct and statistically significant areas of anomalously warm conditions regardless of the storm intensity classification. Moreover, all 205 city‐storm events had positive HI anomalies following the storms' passage with a maximum of 5°C. The results show that HI anomalies can be high, have a time lag of days, and be observed in locations not directly impacted by the storm. The results have implications for tropical cyclones preparedness, including suggesting that preparedness include informing the public about heat impacts. Two or more extreme events that are coincident in time or that occur in close succession present unparalleled challenges to development and disaster recovery. It is well known that tropical cyclones cause long‐lived damage from strong winds, storm surges, intense rain, and/or flooding. Equally, heat is a main concern for public health. However, heat in the aftermath of tropical cyclones has not been a focus.We analyze 53 tropical storms and hurricanes in the eastern Caribbean between 1991 and 2020 and 205 storm‐city events. The storms' heat index (HI) values are statistically significantly warmer during the storm than average in some regions, regardless of groupings of storms by their strength. The HI values before and after storms passed main cities in 14 Caribbean islands further show that in all 205 cases, warm HI anomalies follow the storms' passage, with values as high as 5°C (9 Fahrenheit). The results show that HI anomalies following tropical cyclones can be high, have maximums that occur several days after the storm's passage, and can be observed in locations that are not directly impacted by the storm. The results suggest tropical cyclone preparedness should include informing the public about heat risk. Areas around tropical cyclones have heat index (HI) values significantly warmer than average, a result insensitive to storm strengthPositive HI anomalies occur after the cyclones passage in all storms; the maximum anomalies range from 0.3°C to 5.2°CAnomalous heat can be observed in areas 100s of kilometers away from the central location of the tropical storm Areas around tropical cyclones have heat index (HI) values significantly warmer than average, a result insensitive to storm strength Positive HI anomalies occur after the cyclones passage in all storms; the maximum anomalies range from 0.3°C to 5.2°C Anomalous heat can be observed in areas 100s of kilometers away from the central location of the tropical storm

The article discusses a road project in East Kent which unearthed evidence for settlement, conquest and change on Thanet from the Mesolithic through to the Second World War. East Kent was a gateway for new peoples, cultures and ideas and the essential stepping-stone to this journey was the Isle of Thanet. The excavation of the East Kent Access Road provides an opportunity to visit and engage with the archaeological work with Thanet known to be rich in Anglo-Saxon cemeteries.

In recent times, environmental thinking has become a prominent feature in the design of supply chain networks leading to the concepts of low carbon supply chains and green supply chain management. Understanding the sources and levels of emissions within the supply chain is the first step needed to fully design a low carbon supply chain. This paper helps to develop the concept of supply chain carbon map which provides a visual representation of the sources, levels of emissions and hotspots at a whole supply chain level. This is developed within an extended system framework using the hybrid lifecycle assessment methodology to generate carbon emissions for a mono crystalline silicon PV system and using a multi-regional input-output model to ensure system boundary completeness. The paper also discusses how the development of a whole supply chain perspective of carbon maps ensures that collaborative supply chain networks of firms can be mapped hence firms can gain a better understanding of their supply chain impacts and therefore help its sustainable management.

AbstractCivilians play an increasingly important and complex role in armed conflicts, both as victims and as perpetrators. While this overall trend towards ?civilianization? encompasses all types of present-day conflicts, it is twofold: it takes on a very different nature in high-technology warfare than in the context of low-technology combats that are typical of many civil wars. This article explores these two trends, shows how they merge in asymmetric warfare and outlines key implications for international stabilization and state-building efforts. The present-day conflict landscape is presented from a security policy point of view, placing the ongoing debates on the civilian participation in hostilities in a broader strategic context.

The following article provides an overview of issues related to international cooperation and water use in the Eastern Nile Basin, thereby introducing the following three papers written from an Ethiopian, Sudanese and Egyptian perspective respectively. Basic environmental and socio-economic data is given. The various national interests and international initiatives in the Nile Basin are introduced. Key areas of consensus between the authors, as well as open questions that still need to be worked on, are elaborated. The article also describes the unique process of how the six authors from three countries worked on this joint publication in the Nile Dialogue Workshop of 2002. Key conclusions are that sustained, non-polemical communication can lead to cooperation, and that cooperation is the cornerstone to sustainable water development.

Expansins are a group of extracellular proteins that directly modify the mechanical properties of plant cell walls, leading to turgor-driven cell extension. Within the completely sequenced Arabidopsis genome, we identified 38 expansin sequences that fall into three discrete subfamilies. Based on phylogenetic analysis and shared intron patterns, we propose a new, systematic nomenclature of Arabidopsis expansins. Further phylogenetic analysis, including expansin sequences found here in monocots, pine (Pinus radiata, Pinus taeda), fern (Regnellidium diphyllum, Marsilea quadrifolia), and moss (Physcomitrella patens) indicate that the three plant expansin subfamilies arose and began diversifying very early in, if not before, colonization of land by plants. Closely related "expansin-like" sequences were also identified in the social amoeba, Dictyostelium discoidium, suggesting that these wall-modifying proteins have a very deep evolutionary origin.

In all terrestrial and aquatic plant species the primary cell wall is a dynamic structure, adjusted to fulfil a diversity of functions. However a universal property is its considerable mechanical and tensile strength, whilst being flexible enough to accommodate turgor and allow for cell elongation. The wall is a composite material consisting of a framework of cellulose microfibrils embedded in a matrix of non-cellulosic polysaccharides, interlaced with structural proteins and pectic polymers. The assembly and modification of these polymers within the growing cell wall has, until recently, been poorly understood. Advances in cytological and genetic techniques have thrown light on these processes and have led to the discovery of a number of wall-modifying enzymes which, either directly or indirectly, play a role in the molecular basis of cell wall expansion.

Grasses contain a number of genes encoding both α- and β-expansins. These cell wall proteins are predicted to play a role in cell wall modifications, particularly during tissue elongation. We report here on the characterisation of five α- and three vegetative β-expansins expressed in the leaf elongation zone (LEZ) of the forage grass, Festuca pratensisHuds. The expression of the predominant α-expansin (FpExp2) was localised to the vascular tissue, as was the β-expansin FpExpB3. Expression of another β-expansin (FpExpB2) was not localised to vascular tissue but was highly expressed in roots and initiating tillers. This is the first description of vegetative β-expansin gene expression at the organ and tissue level and also the first evidence of differential expression between members of this gene family. In addition, an analysis of both α- and β-expansin expression along the LEZ revealed no correlation with growth rate distribution, whereas we were able to identify a novel xyloglucan endotransglycosylase (FpXET1) whose expression profile closely mimicked leaf growth rate. These data suggest that α- and β-expansin activities in the grass leaf are associated with tissue differentiation, that expansins involved in leaf growth may represent more minor components of the spectrum of expansin genes expressed in this tissue, and that XETs may be useful markers for the analysis of grass leaf growth.

Xylanase A (Pf Xyn10A), in common with several other Pseudomonas fluorescens subsp. cellulosa polysaccharidases, consists of a Type II cellulose-binding domain (CBD), a catalytic domain (Pf Xyn10ACD) and an internal domain that exhibits homology to Type X CBDs. The Type X CBD of Pf Xyn10A, expressed as a discrete entity (CBDX) or fused to the catalytic domain (Pf Xyn10A′), bound to amorphous and bacterial microcrystalline cellulose with a Ka of 2.5×105 M-1. CBDX exhibited no affinity for soluble forms of cellulose or cello-oligosaccharides, suggesting that the domain interacts with multiple cellulose chains in the insoluble forms of the polysaccharide. Pf Xyn10A′ was 2-3 times more active against cellulose-hemicellulose complexes than Pf Xyn10ACD; however, Pf Xyn10A′ and Pf Xyn10ACD exhibited the same activity against soluble substrates. CBDX did not disrupt the structure of plant-cell-wall material or bacterial microcrystalline cellulose, and did not potentiate Pf Xyn10ACD when not covalently linked to the enzyme. There was no substantial difference in the affinity of full-length Pf Xyn10A and the enzyme's Type II CBD for cellulose. The activity of Pf Xyn10A against cellulose-hemicellulose complexes was similar to that of Pf Xyn10A′, and a derivative of Pf Xyn10A in which the Type II CBD is linked to the Pf Xyn10ACD via a serine-rich linker sequence [Bolam, Cireula, McQueen-Mason, Simpson, Williamson, Rixon, Boraston, Hazlewood and Gilbert (1998) Biochem J. 331, 775-781]. These data indicate that CBDX is functional in Pf Xyn10A and that no synergy, either in ligand binding or in the potentiation of catalysis, is evident between the Type II and X CBDs of the xylanase.

Abstract.: Our previous work has shown that localised activity of the cell-wall-loosening protein expansin is sufficient to induce primordia on the apical meristem of tomato, consistent with the hypothesis that tissue expansion plays a key role in leaf initiation. In this paper we describe the earliest morphogenic events visible on the surface of the apical meristem of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) following treatment with expansin and report on the spectrum of final structures formed. Our observations are consistent with a proposed primary function of expansin effecting morphogenesis via altered biophysical stress patterns in the meristem. The primordia induced by expansin do not complete the full program of leaf development. We present data indicating that one reason for this might be the inability of exogenous expansin to mimic the endogenous pattern of expansin activity in the meristem. These data provide the first detailed analysis at the cellular level of expansin action on living tissue, the first description of the spectrum of structures induced by expansin on the apical meristem, and give an insight into a potentially fundamental mechanism in plant development.

The factors responsible for the isolation or identification of (carbenic) phosphenium and (alkenic) tricoordinate phosphonium salts are discussed. Structural features, reactivity and observations of intramolecular rearrangement are presented, which illustrate some of the requirements for stability in each case.

To investigate the mode of action of cellulose-binding domains (CBDs), the Type II CBD from Pseudomonas fluorescenssubsp. cellulosaxylanase A (XYLACBD) and cellulase E (CELECBD) were expressed as individual entities or fused to the catalytic domain of a Clostridium thermocellumendoglucanase (EGE). The two CBDs exhibited similar Ka values for bacterial microcrystalline cellulose (CELECBD, 1.62×106 M-1; XYLACBD, 1.83×106 M-1) and acid-swollen cellulose (CELECBD, 1.66×106 M-1; XYLACBD, 1.73×106 M-1). NMR spectra of XYLACBD titrated with cello-oligosaccharides showed that the environment of three tryptophan residues was affected when the CBD bound cellohexaose, cellopentaose or cellotetraose. The Ka values of the XYLACBD for C6, C5 and C4 cello-oligosaccharides were estimated to be 3.3×102, 1.4×102 and 4.0×101 M-1 respectively, suggesting that the CBD can accommodate at least six glucose molecules and has a much higher affinity for insoluble cellulose than soluble oligosaccharides. Fusion of either the CELECBD or XYLACBD to the catalytic domain of EGE potentiated the activity of the enzyme against insoluble forms of cellulose but not against carboxymethylcellulose. The increase in cellulase activity was not observed when the CBDs were incubated with the catalytic domain of either EGE or XYLA, with insoluble cellulose and a cellulose/hemicellulose complex respectively as the substrates. PseudomonasCBDs did not induce the extension of isolated plant cell walls nor weaken cellulose paper strips in the same way as a class of plant cell wall proteins called expansins. The XYLACBD and CELECBD did not release small particles from the surface of cotton. The significance of these results in relation to the mode of action of Type II CBDs is discussed.

It has been proposed that cell wall loosening during plant cell growth may be mediated by the endotransglycosylation of load-bearing polymers, specifically of xyloglucans, within the cell wall. A xyloglucan endotransglycosylase (XET) with such activity has recently been identified in several plant species. Two cell wall proteins capable of inducing the extension of plant cell walls have also recently been identified in cucumber hypocotyls. In this report we examine three questions: (1) Does XET induce the extension of isolated cell walls? (2) Do the extension-inducing proteins possess XET activity? (3) Is the activity of the extension-inducing proteins modulated by a xyloglucan nonasaccharide (Glc4-Xyl3-Gal2)? We found that the soluble proteins from growing cucumber (cucumis sativum L.) hypocotyls contained high XET activity but did not induce wall extension. Highly purified wall-protein fractions from the same tissue had high extension-inducing activity but little or no XET activity. The XET activity was higher at pH 5.5 than at pH 4.5, while extension activity showed the opposite sensitivity to pH. Reconstituted wall extension was unaffected by the presence of a xyloglucan nonasaccharide (Glc4-Xyl3-Gal2), an oligosaccharide previously shown to accelerate growth in pea stems and hypothesized to facilitate growth through an effect on XET-induced cell wall loosening. We conclude that XET activity alone is neither sufficient nor necessary for extension of isolated walls from cucumber hypocotyls.

Climate resilience is increasingly prioritized by international development agencies and national governments. However, current approaches to informing communities of future climate risk are problematic. The predominant focus on end‐of‐century projections neglects more pressing development concerns, which relate to the management of shorter‐term risks and climate variability, and constitutes a substantial opportunity cost for the limited financial and human resources available to tackle development challenges. When a long‐term view genuinely is relevant to decision‐making, much of the information available is not fit for purpose. Climate model projections are able to capture many aspects of the climate system and so can be relied upon to guide mitigation plans and broad adaptation strategies, but the use of these models to guide local, practical adaptation actions is unwarranted. Climate models are unable to represent future conditions at the degree of spatial, temporal, and probabilistic precision with which projections are often provided, which gives a false impression of confidence to users of climate change information. In this article, we outline these issues, review their history, and provide a set of practical steps for both the development and climate scientist communities to consider. Solutions to mobilize the best available science include a focus on decision‐relevant timescales, an increased role for model evaluation and expert judgment and the integration of climate variability into climate change services. This article is categorized under: Climate and Development > Knowledge and Action in Development Approximate time horizons of decision‐making in the agricultural sector, shown using a rough logarithmic scale. Very few decisions in agriculture have a time horizon longer than about 30 years.

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A “Genuine Heterocycle” containing a PNAIS framework is obtained from a heterocyclic phosphenium species with a novel heterobis(spiro)tricycle as an isolable intermediate.

IAA biosynthesis in Alaska peas is shown to be plastid localized. D-tryptophan is a much better substrate than is L-tryptophan, and IAA production is dependent on a keto acid. In line with this, a plastid localized D-tryptophan aminotransferase has been found and purified 1,500 fold. The enzyme has no activity with L-tryptophan and prefers pyruvic or oxaloacetic acid as an amino group acceptor. Activities are much higher in dark than in light grown tissues. Some possible physiological ramifications are discussed.