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ABSTRACTUnderstanding the evolution of technological complexity is a major goal in the study of prehistoric lithic industries. This has led to the development of different methods to examine both archaeological items and their production processes. These methods have attempted to segment the actions that form an operational sequence, usually with the aim of quantifying the complexity involved in lithic knapping. However, to date, no study has been capable of cataloguing these actions to the point of characterizing the elements that comprise them. In this work, we propose an approach to identify the smallest unit of any knapping action: the manual gesture. Our goal is to provide a homogeneous language allowing the characterization and quantification of 1) the variability between lithic industries, and 2) the evolution of technological complexity, from both synchronic and diachronic view. As a proof-of-concept, we designed a pilot experiment to characterize the manual gestures involved in making choppers, chopping-tools and handaxes. Our results confirm the reliability of this approach. In addition, it points to the existence of a gestural primordial core that lasted throughout the Oldowan and the Acheulean –as knapping sequences increased in complexity- and the potential to identify some specific traits of the individual knappers.

This paper revises the current state of the debate about the earliest hominin dispersals out of Africa. First we review the archaeological evidence for the earliest occupation of Asia and Europe. Next we summarize the environmental parameters related to the earliest phases of human evolution--specifically, climatic implications for human adaptations andfaunal dispersals. We discuss which were the first hominins to leave Africa, and we propose the invention of technology as a fundamental step for the development of our genus, likely related to changes in subsistence and diet during the late Pliocene and early Pleistocene. From our point of view, hominins were able to generalize the use of technology, as well as to generate, integrate, and diffuse new information into their collective social behavior. We refer to this concept as "socialization." Hence, technology and the socialization thereof became integral aspects of the ecological niche of hominins.

Technological analysis of lithic artefacts recovered at the Aurora stratumof Atapuerca-TD6 shows that this Lower Pleistocene assemblage is similar to Mode I Technology (=Oldowan tradition) documented at many African sites. Diachronic comparison of the different levels of Gran Dolina allows us to conclude that this particular form of early European technology lacks the production of big flakes to manufacture large tools such as bifaces and cleavers. Rather, it is characterized by the presence of small artefacts, including flakes, denticulates, notches, and side-scrapers, many of which bear use-wear traces of butchery and woodworking. The dominant production technique is orthogonal, which is also reflected in the core recovered at the slightly older level of TD4. The raw materials also found in the Middle Pleistocene occupations at Atapuerca, though with significant proportion differences, have a local origin and include varieties of flint, quartzite and sandstone as well as limestone and quartz. TD6 small artefacts were made from most of these, although the retouched pieces seem to have been preferentially made of the best quality flint, i.e., Cretaceous flint, pointing to the existence of differential use of lithic material, and therefore, some degree of planned knapping behaviour. Most of the “chaı̂nes opératoires” or reduction sequences took place inside the cave, although some artefacts, elaborated on Cretaceous flint, seem to have been retouched off site, possibly near the supply sources.

This paper deals with the question of human dispersals out of Africa. Some hypotheses concerning dispersals for both Mode 1 and Mode 2 technologies are presented. We suggest that early humans were technically split into at least two groups, those producing Oldowan (Mode 1) and those producing the more advanced Acheulean (Mode 2). Environmental changes caused a major faunal dispersal at around 1 my, which may have facilitated the first human dispersal toward Eurasia. However, this first dispersal involved only Mode 1 technology, although Mode 2 was already well developed. Therefore, we suggest that the main cause for this dispersal must have involved differential subsistence strategies, such as the competition for resources between Mode 1- and Mode 2-producing populations, which drove the former, but not the latter populations out of the Rift System to other areas. Although Mode 1 technology was highly effective in successfully facing the new Eurasian environments, when the African areas with Mode 2 became saturated, this technical system started to spread, replacing Mode 1 technology in Eurasia long after its initial settling.

Gran Dolina is part of an archaeological and paleontological complex located in the Sierra de Atapuerca karstic system (Burgos, Spain). The Trinchera del Ferrocarril sites were discovered as a consequence of the construction of a railway for the transport of minerals at the end of the nineteenth century. The systematic excavation of the upper Gran Dolina levels was initiated in 1981. In 1993, a 6m2biostratigraphic survey pit was started, reaching level TD6 in 1994. This level was excavated during four consecutive years, yielding human fossils, identified as Homo antecessor, in association with lithic and faunal remains, dating to more than 0·78m.y.a.

The question concerning the place of origin of humankind was widely debated for decades. Since it has been established that this was in Africa, much current research is focused on the age of the settlement of Eurasia. This work reviews three hypotheses concerning the age of the occupation of Europe. These hypotheses may be termed "Young," "Mature," and "Old" Europe, according to which systematic settlement took place either less than 500,000 years ago, somewhat before 0.78 mya (million years ago), or before 1.5 mya, respectively. The arguments for and weaknesses of each hypothesis are discussed, and the "Mature Europe" hypothesis is argued to be supported by the strongest current evidence.