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Hard fescue is an allo‐hexaploid, caespitose, cool‐season grass that is part of the fine‐leaved ovina complex of the Lolium–Festucaclade in Poaceae. It is predominantly used as a low‐maintenance turfgrass and soil stabilization grass in situations with reduced inputs of nitrogen and water. While often recommended for use under tree canopies, prolonged foliar shade can thin turf stands and reduce their functionality; furthermore, gray snow mold caused by Typhula incarnatacan further affect hard fescue turfgrass functionality. In this study, we gathered a diverse population of hard fescue collections and varieties, which fit into four genetic structures. Because no genomic reference sequences exist for this species, a contig‐level pseudohaploid genomic reference was assembled from a plant of the hard fescue variety Beacon. With 98% benchmarking universal single‐copy orthologs (BUSCO) coverage from 241 contigs, this reference assembly was used to conduct genome‐wide association analysis. Thirty‐eight single‐nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers were associated with foliar shade response phenotypes, including SNPs near molybdate transporter and cytochrome P450 genes. Three SNP markers were associated with gray snow mold responses, with one located near a Protein Kinase G11 gene and corresponding to a 20% improvement in gray snow mold resistance. A primary contig‐level genome of Beacon hard fescue was assembled.A GWAS for shade tolerance resulted in 38 significant loci, with some loci shared among traits.A GWAS for gray snow mold resistance found three loci, two of which were near candidate genes

Gas wells have often intersected mining resources, but unconventional shale well drilling has more recently challenged mines to balance the risk of interaction due to higher pressures and larger quantities of gas. Full extraction mining, such as the longwall method, induces ground movement that may influence the casings if wells are drilled within the mining area. The possibility of a casing shear would lead to the risk of unplanned gas migration into the mine. This has the potential to quickly overcome the ventilation system and reach the explosive range which, if ignited, can have catastrophic consequences on the health and safety of underground workers. The utilization of network software to model mine ventilation is a common practice in the mining industry as a predictive tool for planning and monitoring and can assist with a well breach scenario over a large mining area. This work focuses on a well breach in between two longwall panels after second panel mining with gas entering primarily through the gobs of the adjacent longwall panels. Applying the network software Ventsim, a gob zone and ventilation network were created to better understand the distribution of gas within the mine and the limitations and effectiveness of a ventilation system. The model shows both a transient flow simulation and steady state concentrations throughout the mine ventilation system. Using a standard Pittsburgh coal seam longwall ventilation scheme, we find that the system can dilute a significant inflow of up to 700 cfm of methane.

Professional turfgrass managers and consumers continue to express interest in low‐input turfgrasses; however, the potential reductions in maintenance inputs from “low‐input” turfgrasses are largely assumed and have not been well‐quantified. Over 3 years, replicated field experiments at Purdue University and the University of Minnesota quantified the performance and the amount of fertilizer and pesticide inputs of cool‐season turfgrass species when managed as variable‐input turfgrass systems. Fifteen turfgrass cultivars including eight cultivars across five taxa of fine fescue (Festucaspp.), two cultivars of tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea), four cultivars of Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), and one perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne) cultivar were investigated. Cultivars were selected to represent advances in breeding efforts. Plots received no irrigation after establishment and individual plots only received fertilizer or pesticide inputs from 2019 to 2021 if the turf in the plot exceeded or fell below a set threshold (i.e., too many pests or too low turf density). Monthly data collection and fertilizer and pesticide inputs were recorded for 3 years at each site. New fine fescue taxa cultivars provided consistently higher turf quality at both sites and required an average 56% and 41% fewer fertilizer and pesticide inputs than traditional species (tall fescue, Kentucky bluegrass, and perennial ryegrass) in Indiana and Minnesota, respectively. Compared to traditional species, older Festuca rubrassp. cultivars reduced fertilizer and pesticide inputs by an average of 37% and 25% in Indiana and Minnesota, respectively. Fine fescue taxa, especially new cultivars, are good choices to reduce inputs and provide high turf quality for low‐input turfgrass systems. Improved fine fescue cultivars provided the highest turf quality in a variable‐input system.Fine fescue taxa required 37% fewer fertilizer and pesticide inputs than tall fescue.Kentucky bluegrass and perennial ryegrass required >50% more fertilizer and pesticide inputs than fine fescues.New Festuca rubrassp. cultivars required 21%–31% fewer fertilizer and pesticide inputs than older cultivars, which still performed well.Research findings highlight the importance of proper species and cultivar selection based on site conditions, expectations, planned management strategies, and available inputs.

Turfgrass stakeholder surveys have indicated fine fescue (Festucaspp.) seed will become in higher demand, but fine fescue seed production in the United States, especially in Oregon, has not increased. Northern Minnesota is conducive for cool‐season turfgrass seed production and has existing infrastructure to produce turfgrass seed. There is an exciting opportunity for Northern Minnesotan farmers to increase revenue by producing fine fescue seed; however, fine fescues require a growing season for establishment prior to seed production, and an economic crop during the first growing season is needed. Most fine fescues are considered shade tolerant and should establish under spring wheat (Triticum aestivumL.), which is the current cropping system used for perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenneL.) seed production in Minnesota. Experiments were established in Roseau (2018 and 2019) and St. Paul (2018) in which several cultivars of Chewings, hard and strong creeping red fescue were interseeded with spring wheat. Our objectives were to examine stand and seed production of these three fine fescue taxa in comparison with perennial ryegrass. All three taxa were negatively affected by wheat, possibly from excessive shade from the wheat canopy. The fine fescue culm index (number of culms relative to whole‐plant biomass) grown in wheat was lower, indicating that vernalization was negatively impacted, resulting in seed yield reduction. Our results demonstrate that the currently used perennial ryegrass–spring wheat cropping system is not optimized for fine fescue seed production, especially hard fescue, and more research is needed to improve this cropping system in Northern Minnesota. Turfgrass stakeholders desire lower input options, resulting in the need to increase fine fescue seed production.In Northern Minnesota, establishing fine fescue in spring wheat, as is currently done with perennial ryegrass, is preferred by growers.Fine fescue stand, culm index, and yield are negatively affected when established with spring wheat.

The economic downturns of 2007–09 and the COVID-19 pandemic affected most industries in the United States, including landscape services and equipment sales, and provoked both short-term disruptions and long-term changes. To understand how the landscaping industry has responded, we investigated patterns of consumer expenditures on landscape services and equipment from 2009 through 2021 using a representative sample of 76,895 US households. We categorized US households as detached single-family residents and townhouse residents to more fully articulate the factors that turned potential consumers into purchasers and the factors that affected purchasers’ expenditures. We used a double-hurdle model to identify key factors that drive consumer demand for landscape services and equipment over time, including social demographics, geographic characteristics, housing conditions, year and seasonal trends, and the COVID-19 pandemic. We found that during the studied period, the demand for landscape services declined in terms of both the percentage of consumers purchasing the services and the purchasers’ average expenditures, while the demand for do-it-yourself (DIY) equipment remained relatively unchanged. In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, the percentage of consumers who purchased landscape services increased, while the expenditures on landscape services decreased in 2020 and then began to rebound in 2021, but not enough to reverse the overall downward trend. In contrast, purchases of DIY equipment were relatively stable in response to the COVID-19 pandemic and mainly relied on current consumers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The lack of turfgrass diversity in cool‐season sod production is related to information inefficiencies, such as the lack of agronomic information available on improved, low‐input species, such as fine fescues (Festucaspp.). Collaborative research between Purdue University and University of Minnesota investigated the influence of cool‐season turfgrass species mixtures on the harvest (production and strength) and storage limitations of sod. Field experiments were established in 2018 in West Lafayette, IN, and in 2019 in St. Paul, MN. Treatments included 12 turfgrass species mixtures that consisted of the following five species: strong creeping red fescue (Festuca rubraL. ssp. rubraGaudin), Chewings fescue (F. rubrassp. commutataGaudin), hard fescue (F. brevipilaTracey), tall fescue (F. arundinaceaSchreb.), and Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensisL.). Data on turf cover, vertical growth rate, sod tensile strength, sod handling, and shelf‐life storage and transplant success were collected at multiple harvest timings from 10 to 24 mo after planting. The majority of the sod mixtures, especially those containing ≥33% strong creeping red fescue, produced high quality sod similar to the standard comparison of 100% Kentucky bluegrass sod and transplant success was not severely affected when stored for 24–72 h immediately following a spring or autumn harvest. Sod mixtures containing tall fescue, including “rhizomatous tall fescue,” consistently resulted in the lowest sod strength and handling. Overall, sod producers growing fine fescue sod may be able to not only reduce management inputs, but also yield good sod strength with low‐input sod mixtures. Kentucky bluegrass sod exhibited the slowest establishment rates.Higher vertical growth rates occurred for both Kentucky bluegrass and tall fescue.Low‐input mixtures should contain at least 33% strong creeping red fescue for sod strength.Mixtures containing tall fescue produced sod with poor tensile strength.All sod mixtures successfully transplanted after 24‐ or 72‐h storage.

Outdoor water use, especially for lawn and landscaping irrigation, accounts for a substantial proportion of residential water use and often peaks during summer months. Understanding how to reduce outdoor water use can play a critical role in balancing the increasing demand for and subsequent protection of water resources. This study aims to find out if information-based strategies can be effective in reducing homeowners’ water use as well as identifying the key determinants that can enhance water conservation campaigns. Using online survey data from 2077 randomly selected urban homeowners with home lawns in a relatively water-rich state, we found that social norm-based information is generally more effective to promote household water conservation behavior than education information. Moreover, the results showed that the households’ water-saving actions, lawn watering knowledge, awareness for local water scarcity, attitudes toward water conservation, socio-demographics, and landscape characteristics all play a role in determining household water conservation intention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As urbanization increases, managed urban landscapes are frequently the mode through which people experience nature and where careers in natural resources are increasing. There is a lack of knowledge related to curricula and programs where students are exposed to managed urban landscapes and careers related to them. We aimed to evaluate the current status of managed urban landscape curricula (MULC) in undergraduate programs in Minnesota through a systematic investigation of programs and courses at higher education institutions. All undergraduate courses offered by included higher education institutions were reviewed to determine the presence, absence, or possibility of MULC based on the course's publicly available descriptions and were combined with departmental and institutional characteristics to identify patterns of MULC across the state. Only about 1% of over 50,000 courses reviewed contain MULC. Courses with MULC were concentrated in public doctoral‐level institutions and in departments such as biology and environmental studies, however MULC courses were found at 94% of included institutions and across 60 different departments. While the number of courses with MULC was minimal, courses with the possibility of including MULC show there are ample opportunities for MULC to be added to existing courses, especially core requirements such as introductory biology or a survey of environmental science in the state of Minnesota and more broadly. Overall, there was a limited presence of managed urban landscapes curricula (MULC) across institutions.Public doctoral institutions contained the highest presence of MULC.Courses with MULC were concentrated in proximate departments and programs.There is a significant potential to increase the presence of MULC across institutions.

AbstractIn my comments on Karin de Boer’s Kant’s Reform of Metaphysics, I pose five questions. First, I ask how the fundamental principle of practical philosophy that Kant identifies and claims is fundamentally different from Wolff’s is consistent with the claim that Kant is reforming Wolff’s metaphysics. Second, I ask whether De Boer thinks that Kant, as a reformer of Wolff, continues to accept the Principle of Sufficient Reason (or some variant thereof). Third, I ask whether De Boer accepts Wolff’s conception of analytic judgements, especially as applied to the fundamental principles of metaphysics, and if she does not, how Kant can be reforming rather than rejecting Wolff’s metaphysics. Fourth, I ask what De Boer’s argument is for thinking that Kant is not begging the question against Wolff in thinking that a prioricognition needs schemata. Fifth, I ask how De Boer understands the division of labour between the Transcendental Analytic and the Transcendental Dialectic in establishing the claims of metaphysics.

Little information exists on establishment vigor differences among fine fescue taxa (FestucaL. spp.) and on the effects N fertilizer levels or clover (TrifoliumL. spp.)‐inclusion during establishment. Five replicated field experiments in Indiana, Minnesota, and Oregon were conducted from 2019 to 2021. Data collection continued for 9 mo after planting to investigate differences among four fine fescue taxa and determine optimal N fertility or clover‐inclusion programs for the establishment of fine fescue taxa. Six N fertilizer levels ranged from 0 to 122.5 kg N ha−1during the 8 wk after planting, and two treatments included clover‐inclusion + 0 kg N ha−1at seeding. The three taxa of the Festuca rubracomplex—strong creeping red fescue (F. rubraL. ssp. rubraGaudin), slender creeping red fescue [F. rubrassp. littoralis(G. Mey.) Auquier], and Chewings fescue (F. rubrassp. commutataGaudin)—were similar to one another and required the shortest amount of time until 90% establishment (i.e., faster establishment) compared with hard fescue (Festuca brevipilaTracey). Providing 24.5 kg N ha−1at seeding hastened establishment of all fine fescues compared with no N fertilizer (0 kg N ha−1). Applying 49 kg N ha−1at establishment provided faster establishment than the 24.5 kg N ha−1treatment; however, treatments receiving 73.5–122.5 kg N ha−1during the first 8 wk after planting provided a similar rate of establishment as 49 kg N ha−1. Inclusion of clover with fine fescue resulted in slower establishment than fertilizer levels of ≥24.5 kg N ha−1. Festuca brevipilahas a slower establishment rate than the three Festuca rubrasubspecies.Fine fescues should receive 24.5–49 kg N ha−1during the first 8 wk after planting.Applying >49 kg N ha−1during the first 8 wk provides negligible benefits.Clover‐inclusion in fine fescue seed mixtures may slow establishment.

Turf‐type perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenneL.) success depends on adequate turfgrass quality and economical seed yield. In most breeding programs, spaced plants are the initial unit of selection in which observations of related individuals dictate the selection of superior germplasm for further testing. Therefore, spaced plants must be predictive of seed production and turfgrass growing environments. This study investigated the effectiveness of standard (three plants m−2) and competitive (23 plants m−2) spaced‐plant nurseries as selection environments with respect to two sward environments as well as applying a novel image analysis technique for several key traits. Seed production, turfgrass, and the two spaced‐plant growing environments were tested at two locations in Minnesota. Turfgrass quality traits were measured in 2017 and 2018 and seed production traits were measured in 2018. Automated image analysis was able to predict the traditional visual scoring values at both locations for crown rust (Puccinia coronataf.sp. lolii) severity [Pearson's correlation (rp) > 0.79, P< .001], winter injury (rp> 0.89, P< .001), and turfgrass texture (rp> 0.88, P< .001). Increasing the competition among spaced plants altered the plant phenotype and improved accuracy for vegetative biomass, crown rust severity, seed yield, and, at one location, turfgrass quality. There was no benefit of increasing competition for several traits such as genetic color, fertile tillers, and spikelet number. Although the competitive design was not useful for all traits, pragmatically, the competitive design used less space and often made measurements and observations easier for bunch‐type grasses.

There is a need to reduce inputs on golf course putting greens. In the north‐central United States, the use of alternative species, like fine fescues (Festucaspp.), could be part of a solution, but information is needed on management and cultivar choices. Our objectives were twofold: (a) to compare performance of fine fescues (strong creeping red [Festuca rubraL. ssp. rubraGaudin, STF], slender creeping red [Festuca rubraL. ssp. littoralis(G. Mey.) Auquier, SLF], Chewings [Festuca rubraL. ssp. commutataGaudin, CHF], and hard fescue [Festuca brevipilaTracey, HDF]) to bentgrasses (creeping bentgrass [Agrostis stoloniferaL., CRB], and colonial bentgrass [Agrostis capillarisL., CLB]) managed as low‐input greens treated with 0, 48.9, 97.7, or 195.3 kg N ha−1yr−1during 2017–2018; and (b) to evaluate multiple fine fescue cultivars for multiyear performance when maintained as low‐input greens in St. Paul, MN. In 2017, CHF and SLF maintained the highest quality of the fine fescues and maintained higher quality at low N compared with both bentgrasses, primarily due to less dollar spot (Clarireediaspp.). During 2018, fine fescue responses to N were similar to those in 2017, but summer patch (Magnaporthespp.) disease resulted in decline of some taxa. In the cultivar study, top‐performing cultivars were CHF, most of which performed similarly. However, SLF and STF cultivars performed more variably. Chewings fescue and SLF maintained with 48.9–97.7 kg N ha−1yr−1may be alternatives to CRB for low‐input greens in the north‐central United States, primarily due to reduced dollar spot.

Turfgrass is often planted along roadsides because of its adaptability and capacity to perform a wide range of functions. Like other roadside vegetation, it must withstand a wide range of biotic and abiotic stresses while persisting long term with minimal management inputs. In cold‐weather climates, snow and ice management practices on roads include the use of deicing salts. Deicing salts can have negative impacts on infrastructure and the environment including soil structure degradation, surface and ground water contamination, and reduction of vegetation quality along roadsides. Insights from past evaluations of turfgrass response to stresses experienced on roadsides can provide perspective for future approaches. This review provides historical context for the establishment of turfgrasses as roadside vegetation in cold‐weather climates where deicing salts are used. Adaptability of species for roadside applications as well as field and controlled environment evaluations of salt tolerance are discussed. In future studies, improved characterization of roadside stress and broader collaborative evaluation programs can enhance testing and result in improved specifications for roadside turfgrass species and mixtures.

New regulations aimed at reducing soil erosion along with changing building and residential codes are increasing sod demand, especially low‐input species, which are currently in very short supply and require research.Replicated field experiments were established in Indiana and Minnesota to quantify the effect of turfgrass species (strong creeping red fescue [Festuca rubraL. ssp. rubraGaudin], Chewings fescue [F. rubrassp. commutataGaudin], tall fescue [F. arundinaceaSchreb.], and Kentucky bluegrass [Poa pratensisL.]), seeding rate (1, 2, and 3 pure live seed cm−2), andN fertilization (98, 196, and 294 kg N ha−1yr−1) on the production, quality, and harvest limitations of sod. Sod strength and handling were measured at sod harvests from 11 to 24 months after planting (MAP). Results indicate that strong creeping red fescue produces quality sod, likely because of the fast establishment and rhizomatous growth habit, and had higher or similar sod strength as Kentucky bluegrass at optimum N rates. Optimum N rates for strong creeping red fescue were two to three times lower than Kentucky bluegrass. Chewings fescue had less sod strength than strong creeping red fescue but more than tall fescue, and at times similar to Kentucky bluegrass. Overall, turfgrass species had the largest effect on sod strength and handling, while seeding or N rates had less impact on sod strength, especially with fine fescues. Sod growers may be able to produce fine fescue sod with good sod strength using lower seeding and N rates, and shorter production periods. Increasing seeding or N rates provides negligible benefits in producing fine fescue sod.There are differences in sod strength and handling among fine fescue taxa.Strong creeping red fescue is a promising solution for low‐input sod production.Higher N rates are required for Kentucky bluegrass compared to strong creeping red fescue.Tall fescue sod with no netting consistently provided poor sod strength and handling.

Research is lacking on best establishment practices of fine fescues (Festucaspp.), such as optimal seeding timings, which are well known for other cool‐season turfgrasses. Our objective was to document establishment and determine optimal seeding timings for mixed stand of fine fescue in multiple cool‐season climate zones in the United States. From 2019 to 2020, an experiment was replicated across four locations in the northern United States to investigate nine monthly fine fescue mixture seeding timings from March through November. Fine fescue seedling emergence typically hastened as temperatures increased during the growing season, and emergence required 6.1–9.4 d when soil temperatures were within a range of 15–25 °C. Final grid count data across multiple sites indicated that seeding fine fescues in August, September, and at times, July, will likely produce the best establishment with the lowest weed infestation pressure, and there may be more flexibility in seeding timings in a Mediterranean climate, such as Oregon. Seeding fine fescues in the early‐spring or late‐autumn can be more unreliable because of greater likelihood of weed infestation, suboptimal growing conditions, and potential of a late‐autumn seeding to act as an unintended dormant seeding. Results indicate the weed invasion pressure of specific weeds will vary depending life cycle of weed and seeding time of year. Overall, seeding a fine fescue mixture in August or September will increase likelihood of success in cool‐season climate zones in the United States with a wider seeding window when planting in Mediterranean climates. Seedling emergence required 6.1–9.4 d when soil temperatures ranged from 15 to 25 °C.Seeding fine fescue in August or September will increase odds of successful establishment.Summer annual weed pressure increased with spring, early summer, or dormant seedings.Perennial broadleaf weed pressure increased with spring seedings.Mediterranean climates can successfully establish fine fescue mixtures when seeded from April to November.

Weed suppression has been observed in the fine fescues, a group of low‐input turfgrasses. Of the fine fescues, Chewings fescue (Festuca rubraL. ssp. commutataGaudin; CH) and strong creeping red fescue (F. rubraL. ssp. rubraGaudin; ST) displayed the strongest weed suppression ability in previous research while hard fescue (F. brevipilaTracey; HF) did not appear to have the same level of suppression. However, most of this research occurred more than 10 years ago and did not lead to improved cultivars. There is a need for confirmation of these results using diverse germplasm that may have genetic variability for weed suppression; this information would be useful for turfgrass breeding efforts. Our objective was to screen for weed suppression abilities in 19 fine fescue accessions originally collected in Europe, at two distinct field locations, St. Paul, MN and West Lafayette, IN, infested with smooth crabgrass (Digitaria ischaemum(Schreb.) Schreb. ex Muhl.). Our results confirmed previous reports that the F. rubrataxa are more crabgrass suppressive than HF. Chewings fescue and slender creeping red fescue [F. rubraL. ssp. littoralis(G. Mey.) Auquier; SL] displayed the strongest ability to suppress smooth crabgrass. Results also indicated that there is large variability between the entries within each taxon, including within HF. Slender creeping red fescues were relatively more weed suppressive than previously shown, and this taxon needs further attention. Results suggest further opportunities for plant breeders to develop new weed suppressive cultivars for low‐input turfgrass systems. Festuca rubrataxa are more crabgrass suppressive than F. ovina.There is large variability in weed suppression across entries within each fine fescue taxon.Opportunities exist for plant breeders to develop new weed suppressive cultivars.Future studies should aim to separate allelopathic effects from plant competition.

Hard fescue (Festuca brevipilaTracey; 2n= 6x= 42) is a cool season turfgrass with a fine leaf texture that performs well under low‐input management. Breeding and genetics studies of F. brevipilahave been limited due to the complexity of its hexaploid genome. To advance our knowledge of F. brevipilagenomics, we used PacBio isoform sequencing to develop a reference transcriptome for this species. Here we report the F. brevipilareference transcriptome generated from root, crown, leaf, and inflorescence tissues. We obtained 59,510 full‐length transcripts, of which 38,556 were nonredundant full‐length transcripts. The longest and shortest transcripts were 11,487 and 58 bp, respectively. Distribution of synonymous distances among paralogs within F. brevipilasuggested highly similar subgenomes that are difficult to distinguish from sequencing errors. To evaluate the phylogenetic relationships among F. brevipilaand close relatives, we sequenced three additional transcriptomes using closely related species on an Illumina platform. The results of our phylotranscriptomic analysis supported the close relationships among F. brevipila(6x), Festuca ovina(4x), Festuca ovinasubsp. ovina(2x), and Festuca valesiaca(2x), with high levels of discordance among gene trees. Overall, the F. brevipilaPacBio Isoseq reference transcriptome provides the foundation for transcriptome studies and offers breeders a resource for gene discovery in this important turfgrass species. Long reads sequencing provides high quality transcriptome.We generate genomics resources for understudied plant species.We investigate phylogenic affinity of hard fescue to other closely related turfgrass species.

Research is required on sod to explore the differences in management and postharvest practices to help inform sod producers and reduce information inefficiencies that affect the supply and demand of cool‐season turfgrass sod. Replicated field experiments were conducted in Indiana and Minnesota to quantify the effect of turfgrass species (strong creeping red fescue [Festuca rubraL. ssp. rubraGaudin], Chewings fescue [F. rubrassp. commutataGaudin], tall fescue [F. arundinaceaSchreb.], and Kentucky bluegrass [Poa pratensisL.]), seeding rate (1, 2, and 3 pure live seed (PLS) cm−2), and N fertilization (98, 196, and 294 kg N ha−1yr−1) on growth rate and shelf‐life storage. Turf height measurements occurred at multiple timings to calculate growth rates of treatments. Sod was harvested in the spring and autumn and stored on pallets for either 24 or 72 h and then reinstalled in its previous location and treatment effects were assessed. Seeding rate had no effect on growth rate or transplant success of sod. Differences in growth rates demonstrate potential savings for sod growers through less mowing requirement when producing fine fescue sod. Treatments did not influence internal heating of sod rolls, which were higher than, but similar to, diurnal fluctuations of air temperatures. There were minimal differences among turfgrass species and N rates, which indicates strong creeping red fescue, Chewings fescue, tall fescue, and Kentucky bluegrass sod stored for 24–72 h after a spring or autumn harvest in Indiana or Minnesota will not hinder transplant success. Seeding rate had no effect on growth rate or transplant success of sod.Reduced growth rates occurred in fine fescues, especially Chewings fescue.Treatments did not affect sod storage temperatures, which were higher than air temperatures.After 24 or 72‐h storage, all treatments provided successful sod transplant.Green cover declined after storage, but increased to 80–95% by 14 d after installation.

Increasing temperatures associated with climate change will be the next challenge for crop improvement, especially for turfgrass species that are often grown in urban green spaces. Previous research on turfgrass heat stress tolerance has been limited to a small number of species and cultivars with different heat stress conditions between studies; therefore, we assessed heat stress tolerance of 34 turfgrasses representing 14 species. Four replicates of each entry were established for at least 12 wk and then subjected to 49 d of heat stress (35/25 °C day/night) followed by a 4 wk recovery period (25/15 °C day/night). Turfgrass entries were assessed using the normalized difference vegetative index, the percentage of green obtained with digital image analysis, and membrane stability estimated by electrolyte leakage. Buffalograss [Bouteloua dactyloides(Nutt.) J.T. Columbus], Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensisL.), tall fescue [Schedonorus arundinaceus(Schreb.) Dumort], and slender creeping red fescue (Festuca rubrassp. littoralis) were more tolerant of heat stress than the other species. The Canada bluegrass (Poa compressaL.), blue grama [Bouteloua gracilis(Willd. ex Kunth.) Lag. ex Griffiths], and smooth brome (Bromus inermisLeyss.) cultivars were all tolerant of heat stress; however, only one cultivar for these three species was tested, making species‐wide generalizations difficult. In some cases, the cultivars and/or selections within a given species differed in heat stress response. Almost all entries were able to recover from the heat stress by the end of the recovery period. Altogether, we were able to identify turfgrasses that should perform adequately in high‐temperature urban environments.

Fine fescues, taxa within the Festucagenus, are considered some of the most shade‐tolerant cool‐season turfgrasses, but past research from field studies has been inconsistent. The objective of this research was to evaluate variation in Chewings fescue (Festuca rubraL. ssp. commutataGaudin, CH), hard fescue (F. brevipilaTracey, HD), and strong creeping red fescue (F. rubrassp. rubraGaudin, ST) morphology and physiology under simulated foliar shade and full sun. Experiments were carried out using 12 CH, 13 HD, and 15 ST entries within a greenhouse with or without a photoselective filter to simulate foliar shade. The filter reduced the red to far‐red (R/FR) ratio to ∼0.66, and light intensity was reduced to 30% of full sun under shade treatment. Several parameters were assessed including height, the number of tillers, biomass, total chlorophyll, and the chlorophyll a/bratio. In both sun and shade experiments, ST were significantly taller than the other taxa. Chewings fescue and HD had significantly more tillers than ST in sun, but both CH and ST had significantly more tillers than HD in shade. Hard fescue had the greatest biomass in sun, and the least in shade. Significantly more CH genotypes lacked shade avoidance responses (SAR) than both other taxa under shade, and a greater proportion of HD were shade intolerant. Based on this study, CH > ST > HD in terms of improved response to shade. However, variation for response to shade observed within entries indicates potential for future improvement.

Festuca ovinaL. is a fine fescue that is used as a low‐input turfgrass. The ploidy levels of F. ovinaaccessions held by the USDA National Plant Germplasm System (NPGS) are unknown, limiting the use of the germplasm in breeding programs. The objective of this study was to determine DNA content and estimate ploidy of these accessions. Among 127 accessions, we identified a wide range of ploidy levels from diploid to octoploid. We also found the accessions with higher ploidy levels usually had larger seed size. These results will be informative to plant breeders and researchers using germplasm from the F. ovinacollection and point to challenges in maintaining polyploid, outcrossing germplasm seed stocks in common nurseries.

Fine fescues (FestucaL. spp.) comprise a group of five cool‐season grasses used in turfgrass systems under many conditions: strong creeping red fescue (F. rubraL. ssp. rubraGaudin), slender creeping red fescue [F. rubraL. ssp. littoralis(G. Mey.) Auquier], Chewings fescue [F. rubraL. ssp. commutataGaudin; syn. F. rubraL. ssp. fallax(Thuill.) Nyman], hard fescue (F. brevipilaTracey), and sheep fescue [F. ovinaL.; syn. F. ovinaL. ssp. hirtula(Hack. exTravis) M.J. Wilk.]. Their extensive geographic distribution is a result of adaptation to many different environmental and management conditions especially low‐input sites. This review summarizes the history, production, establishment, management, use, and availability of fine fescues; discusses strengths and shortcomings of fine fescue; identifies knowledge gaps; and provides an outlook toward further research on this group of grasses. Improved cultivars have been developed in recent years that expand the geographic distribution and uses of species but additional efforts to increase seed yield and improve abiotic and biotic stress tolerances are still needed. Expanded use of fine fescue could be achieved through increased sod production of fine fescue, though current research‐based information is limited. Research on fine fescue allelopathy and the contributions of fungal endophytes, both of which could lead to reduced pesticide requirements is important for improved pest management. Future research on fine fescues should focus on implementation and management of new cultivars that possess enhanced abiotic and biotic stress tolerance that will result in fewer inputs and improve the appeal and adoption of these low‐input grasses.

Perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenneL.) is an important turf and forage species that often becomes infected with Puccinia coronataf. sp. lolii, the causal pathogen of crown rust. Disease control through clavicipitaceous endophytes has been proposed as a potential biocontrol. Two field experiments were designed to determine the influence of native Epichloëendophyte infection on natural rust development across a diverse panel of perennial ryegrass germplasm. Experiment 1 used an isogenic population design in which infected (E+) or endophyte‐free (E−) clonal plants were nested within 14 perennial ryegrass entries. Experiment 2 consisted of isofrequent E+ and E− progeny from isogenic parents. Results showed the endophyte had no consistent main effect on crown rust severity among or within entries; however, several isogenic host pairs did show either favorable or antagonistic effects. Despite these sporadic effects, no differences were found between isofrequent family pairs, indicating the presence of a host × endophyte interaction. Genotypic and phenotypic data revealed that endophyte isolates were similar within entry, indicating that host genotype could be responsible for the highly specific endophyte effect on crown rust. The preponderance of host resistance in mediating rust severity was supported by large broad (>.75) and narrow‐sense (.76) heritability estimates. These findings support the conclusion that endophyte infection does not play a substantial role in mediating crown rust severity on a population scale in perennial ryegrass.

A lack of winter hardiness limits the utility of perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenneL.) as a turf and forage grass in northern latitudes. The fungal endophyte Epichloë festucaevar. loliiis commonly associated with perennial ryegrass and is believed to enhance stress tolerance in some environments. The effect of E. festucaevar. loliion freezing tolerance was assessed using seven diverse perennial ryegrass entries. Freezing tolerance was used as a proxy for winter hardiness, and most entries had been previously field tested to confirm this supposition. Three experiments were designed to isolate the effect of the endophyte from confounding effects from the grass host and the endophyte removal process. Experiment 1 compared hosts with (E+) or without (E−) endophytes that were either genetically identical or non‐isogenic, but from the same entry. Isogenic E+ and E− plants did not differ in freezing tolerance; however, some non‐isogenic populations differed in freezing tolerance. Experiment 2 used additional populations of non‐isogenic hosts to confirm the association between freezing tolerant hosts and endophyte infection. Isogenic hosts were polycrossed and the half‐sib E+ and E− progeny were used in Exp. 3, eliminating any effect of the endophyte removal process. Freezing tolerance did not vary between related families differing in endophyte infection, confirming that highly related hosts were not affected by endophyte. These results strongly suggest that native E. festucaevar. loliihas no direct effect on freezing tolerance but may be found in higher frequencies in freezing‐tolerant hosts.

Perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenneL.) is grown as a biennial when produced for seed in Minnesota; however, producers desire multiyear seed production. One approach to achieving multiyear seed production could be through improved management practices. In particular, plant growth regulators (PGRs) and fall residue management could help overcome several obstacles hindering multiyear seed production in northern climates. We assessed the impact of fall residue management practices and various PGRs after first‐year harvest on winter survival and second‐year seed yield of perennial ryegrass grown in northern Minnesota. The experiment was conducted for three trial years from 2013 to 2016 in second‐year perennial ryegrass seed production swards. Three fall residue management treatments and five fall‐applied PGR treatments were evaluated in a split‐plot design. Fall‐applied PGRs had no effect on second‐year seed yield and minimal effects on winter survival. Managing residue by open‐burning consistently resulted in significantly higher second‐year seed yields than in the no residue removal control (1064 vs. 680 kg ha−1, respectively). Open‐burning and baling and mowing residue resulted in similar seed yields in 2 out of 3 yr, and both increased yields compared with no residue removal. Winter survival was only moderately affected by residue management, was highly dependent on year, and had an impact on mean seed yields across treatments. This indicates that winter survival and fall residue management are both important in maintaining multiyear seed yield in Minnesota.

Turfgrass consumers trusted information from families, university extension, and garden centers the most.Homeowners ranked garden center/hardware stores, followed by families and then lawn care companies as the most useful information sources.Information from university extension and regional water management authorities were considered as trustworthy but less useful. Consumers need adequate information about turfgrasses attributes and lawn maintenance practices when they choose what types of turfgrasses to grow in their home lawns. We conducted online surveys with 2167 homeowners from the United States to explore what information sources they consider as trustworthy and useful regarding lawn care. We found turfgrass consumers trusted information from families, University extensions, and garden centers/hardware stores the most; these information sources were equally trusted. Whereas, they ranked garden centers/hardware stores, followed by families and then lawn care companies as the most useful information sources. Information from University extensions and regional water management authorities were considered as trustworthy but less useful. Other information sources (such as the Internet, books, manufacturer websites, and third party reviews) were considered as the least trustworthy and least useful sources. Homeowners’ socio‐demographic backgrounds affected their attitude toward lawn care information sources. The results of the study have important marketing implications for turfgrass suppliers and can help guide outreach efforts by University extension educators.

Turfgrass seed mixtures containing fine fescue species can produce sod that achieves equal or greater strength than those containing large amounts of Kentucky bluegrass when harvested 22 mo after establishment.Change in proportion of fine fescues from each initial seed mixture to the resulting final plant community was negatively correlated with sod strength characteristics.Thatch development was only weakly correlated with either maximum tensile load or work required to tear sod.Mixtures with different seed compositions, but resulting in similar or identical final species compositions, often possessed very different mechanical properties. Successful establishment of turfgrass on roadsides often necessitates using species mixtures not typically used for sod production. Evaluating mechanical characteristics of sod produced using such mixtures is necessary to determine if they possess sufficient strength for harvest and handling. The objective of this work was to evaluate tensile strength and work required to tear sod of mixtures of nine cool‐season turfgrass species previously determined to perform well on Minnesota roadsides. Three replications of 51 mixtures were established in a randomized complete block design at St. Paul and Rosemount, MN. Plots were seeded during September 2012 and harvested in July 2014. Tensile testing revealed that plots seeded with 40% strong creeping red fescue (Festuca rubrassp. rubraGaudin), 40% Chewings fescue [F. rubrassp. fallax(Thuill.) Nyman], and 20% alkaligrass [Puccinellia distans(L.) Parl.] resulted in a final plant community comprising 99% fine fescues (Festucaspp.) and produced sod with the highest maximum tensile load to tear of 507.7 Newtons. At St. Paul, maximum work required to tear sod was 16.57 Nm for a final plant community comprising 98% fine fescues and 2% Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensisL.). At Rosemount, maximum work required to tear sod was 38.86 Nm for a final plant community comprising 90% fine fescue, 9% creeping bentgrass (Agrostis stoloniferaL.), and 1% weed cover. Mixtures currently used on Minnesota roadsides containing high Kentucky bluegrass content were consistently among the weakest in the trial and sod comprising alternative species can match or improve the strength of those mixtures.

This paper argues not only that Schelling, Novalis, and Friedrich Schlegel are reacting directly to Kant (rather than simply to each other and to other post-Kantian figures), but also that they are responding in complex ways to one particularly prominent and distinctive line of thought in Kant, namely his account of reason, conditions, and the unconditioned. Though Kant argues that we cannot have cognition of unconditioned objects, he none the less thinks that reason demands that we accept the existence of such objects. The paper argues that the German Romantics take over this general line of thought, though they do so in different contexts and to different ends. Specifically, focusing on this dimension of Kant’s thought allows us to see both how the logic of conditioning relations can be seen to be driving their arguments for the Absolute, and how Kant’s particular conception of conditioning relations gives rise to important differences from the views of the German Romantics. For whereas he distinguishes different kinds of real conditioning relations, they operate with a generic conception of conditioning that leads to their distinctive Romantic views.

The article talks about a survey research on low-input turfgrasses for home lawns maintenance, and discusses characteristics including irrigation, fertility, mowing, fertilizer requirement, color and texture, and weed encroachment, and environmental and economic costs.

Seeding rates (SRs) and row‐spacing widths (RSWs) in perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenneL.) seed production are variable and the impacts of these factors on perennial ryegrass seed yield and plant growth characteristics are not well characterized. Experiments were conducted during 2010 and 2011 in first‐year seed production fields near Roseau and Roosevelt, MN, where five SRs (1.3, 2.6, 5.2, 7.8, and 10.4 kg pure live seed [PLS] ha−1), three RSWs (10, 20, and 30 cm), and three N rates (67, 112, and 157 kg N ha−1) were evaluated in a split‐split plot design under nonirrigated conditions. The 30‐cm RSW resulted in 45% greater stem rust incidence, 8% fewer fertile tillers, and up to 2% greater 1000‐seed weight (TSW) vs. the 10‐cm RSW. For every unit of N applied, N increased biomass by 4 to 25 kg ha−1, fertile tillers by 3.7 tillers m−2, and seed yield by up to 4.7 kg seed ha−1, depending on environment. The 7.8 and 10.4 kg PLS ha−1SRs combined with the 10‐cm RSW, 157 ha−1N rate, and other management factors, nearly eliminated weeds (<2% weed cover) compared with with wider RSWs and lower SRs. Weed cover was always inversely correlated with early‐season vegetative cover (EVC). Seeding rates of 2.6 kg PLS ha−1and greater resulted in similar seed yields suggesting that early‐season plant density is not as important for seed yield as other management factors such as N rate, which significantly improved seed yield in three environments.

Parks in urban areas provide a range of significant benefits across natural and social systems. These critical urban green spaces and those who manage them are faced with balancing budgetary constraints, sustainability goals, and user requirements. Competing demands are exemplified in the difficulties faced in managing the dominant form of park vegetation: natural turfgrass lawns. Traditionally turfgrass lawns can have high input requirements (e.g., water and fertilizer), which may cause negative environmental effects if not managed properly. One proposed solution is the adoption of artificial turfgrass lawns which do not require the more intensive inputs of natural turfgrass lawns. However, park users’ perceptions of the equivalency of artificial and natural lawns across various use cases remain unknown. Thus, we surveyed adults in the United States to elicit responses on the most common uses of public lawn spaces, as well as specifically how likely they were to use artificial and natural lawns across various use cases using photos of each type. Overall, significant differences were found between participants' likelihood to use artificial lawns compared to natural lawns with small to moderate effect sizes across the majority of use cases. This work suggests that park users are generally more hesitant to use artificial turfgrass lawns compared to using natural turfgrass lawns. More work needs to be done on understanding specific reasons for why park users seem to prefer natural lawns across various use cases compared to artificial lawns.

Long-duration space missions pose many challenges to the health of the crew and success of the overall mission. In addition to hazards of the space environment, such as radiation exposure and the effects of microgravity on the human body, poor interactions between crewmembers can result in tension, conflict, or degraded performance. Although scientists have learned a great deal about how to reduce the effects of physical hazards to the crew, few studies have examined ways to monitor the functioning of the crew during a long-duration mission in order to avoid breakdowns in crew performance. This research had two goals. First, we collected data on crew function and performance by administering a battery of behavioral and performance measures to a seven-person crew, comprised of five undergraduate students and two graduate students, during a 2-week mission to the Mars Desert Research Station in Winter 2013. Second, this setting provided a unique opportunity for human factors students to develop a research protocol and then collect data in a field setting. Each study addressed different ways to support crew psychological health in long duration spaceflight.

Turfgrass may experience significant salt stress due to poor water quality, insufficient leaching, or exposure to environmental contaminants. Establishment of salt‐tolerant turfgrass cultivars is one possible method of mitigating the effects of salts in irrigation water or the soil environment. The objective of this research was to evaluate the relative salt tolerance of cool‐season turfgrasses in a controlled environment using digital image analysis. Six replications of 74 cool‐season turfgrasses were established using recommended seeding rates in 10.16‐cm by 10.16‐cm pots of silica sand for 12 wk, and suspended in two 760‐L tubs of half‐strength Hoagland solution. Following an adaptation period, all pots were exposed to salinity levels of 4, 14, and 24 dS m−1successively, each for 2 wk. Digital images were collected after each exposure level using a custom light box, and analyzed for percent green tissue. Cultivars of tall fescue (Festuca arundinaceaSchreb.) were found to be most salt tolerant, with ‘Wolfpack II’ and ‘Jaguar 4G’ performing best after the 14 and 24 dS m−1exposure levels, respectively. Many fine fescue entries performed well, including slender creeping red fescues (Festuca rubraL. ssp. litoralis) ‘Sealink’, ‘Seabreeze GT’, and ‘Shoreline’. Trial entries found to have consistent salt tolerance at all levels may be used to guide recommendations for turfgrass managers and breeders and have potential for use in salt‐tolerant mixtures.