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We have described previously a novel interferon (IFN)-responsive cis-acting enhancer element called γ-IFN-activated transcriptional element (GATE). GATE is distinct from the known IFN-stimulated elements and binds to novel transacting factors. To identify the γ-IFN-responsive transacting factors that interact with GATE, we have screened a cDNA expression library derived from IFN-γ-stimulated murine macrophage cell line and isolated three different cDNAs. Among these is a gene coding for the pleiotropic transcription factor, CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein-β (C/EBP-β). We report here that the gene for C/EBP-β binds to GATE and induces gene expression. A mutant C/EBP-β interferes with the IFN-γ-stimulated transcription of the ISGF3γ (p48) promoter. Other members of the C/EBP family do not cause these effects. Interestingly, the expression of C/EBP-β, not the other members of its family, is induced by IFN-γ. These studies thus identify a novel role for C/EBP-β in the IFN-signaling pathways.

ABSTRACTWhen given in the presence of gamma interferon (IFN-γ), otherwise nontoxic doses of lipopolysaccharide (LPS or endotoxin) become highly lethal for mice. The mechanisms of this synergistic toxicity are not known. We considered the possibility that an interaction between the LPS-induced NF-κB and IFN-γ-induced JAK-STAT pathways at the pretranscriptional level may enhance the LPS-induced signals. To test this hypothesis, we incubated murine macrophage RAW 264.7 cells with IFN-γ for 2 h before addition of different doses of LPS. Consistent with the synergistic induction of inducible nitric oxide synthase mRNA and nitric oxide production by a combination of LPS and IFN-γ, IFN-γ strongly augmented LPS-induced NF-κB activation and accelerated the binding of NF-κB to DNA to as early as 5 min. In agreement with this, IFN-γ pretreatment promoted rapid degradation of IκB-α but not that of IκB-β. Inhibition of protein synthesis during IFN-γ treatment suppressed LPS-initiated NF-κB binding. A rapidly induced protein appeared to be involved in IFN-γ priming. Preincubation of cells with antibodies to tumor necrosis factor alpha or the interleukin-1 receptor partially reduced the priming effect of IFN-γ. In a complementary manner, LPS enhanced the activation of signal-transducing activator of transcription 1 by IFN-γ. These data suggest novel mechanisms for the synergy between IFN-γ and LPS by which they cross-regulate the signal-transducing molecules. Through this mechanism, IFN-γ may transform a given dose of LPS into a lethal stimulus capable of causing sepsis. It may also serve a beneficial purpose by enabling the host to respond quickly to relatively low doses of LPS and thereby activating antibacterial defenses.

ABSTRACTInterferons (IFNs) and retinoids are potent biological response modifiers. By using JAK-STAT pathways, IFNs regulate the expression of genes involved in antiviral, antitumor, and immunomodulatory actions. Retinoids exert their cell growth-regulatory effects via nuclear receptors, which also function as transcription factors. Although these ligands act through distinct mechanisms, several studies have shown that the combination of IFNs and retinoids synergistically inhibits cell growth. We have previously reported that IFN-ß–all-trans-retinoic acid (RA) combination is a more potent growth suppressor of human tumor xenografts in vivo than either agent alone. Furthermore, the IFN-RA combination causes cell death in several tumor cell lines in vitro. However, the molecular basis for these growth-suppressive actions is unknown. It has been suggested that certain gene products, which mediate the antiviral actions of IFNs, are also responsible for the antitumor actions of the IFN-RA combination. However, we did not find a correlation between their activities and cell death. Therefore, we have used an antisense knockout approach to directly identify the gene products that mediate cell death and have isolated several genes associated with retinoid-IFN-induced mortality (GRIM). In this investigation, we characterized one of the GRIM cDNAs, GRIM-12. Sequence analysis suggests that the GRIM-12 product is identical to human thioredoxin reductase (TR). TR is posttranscriptionally induced by the IFN-RA combination in human breast carcinoma cells. Overexpression of GRIM-12 causes a small amount of cell death and further enhances the susceptibility of cells to IFN-RA-induced death. Dominant negative inhibitors directed against TR inhibit its cell death-inducing functions. Interference with TR enzymatic activity led to growth promotion in the presence of the IFN-RA combination. Thus, these studies identify a novel function for TR in cell growth regulation.

ABSTRACTInterferons (IFNs) and retinoids are potent biological response modifiers. By using JAK-STAT pathways, IFNs regulate the expression of genes involved in antiviral, antitumor, and immunomodulatory actions. Retinoids exert their cell growth-regulatory effects via nuclear receptors, which also function as transcription factors. Although these ligands act through distinct mechanisms, several studies have shown that the combination of IFNs and retinoids synergistically inhibits cell growth. We have previously reported that IFN-β–all-trans-retinoic acid (RA) combination is a more potent growth suppressor of human tumor xenografts in vivo than either agent alone. Furthermore, the IFN-RA combination causes cell death in several tumor cell lines in vitro. However, the molecular basis for these growth-suppressive actions is unknown. It has been suggested that certain gene products, which mediate the antiviral actions of IFNs, are also responsible for the antitumor actions of the IFN-RA combination. However, we did not find a correlation between their activities and cell death. Therefore, we have used an antisense knockout approach to directly identify the gene products that mediate cell death and have isolated several genes associated with retinoid-IFN-induced mortality (GRIM). In this investigation, we characterized one of the GRIM cDNAs, GRIM-12. Sequence analysis suggests that the GRIM-12 product is identical to human thioredoxin reductase (TR). TR is posttranscriptionally induced by the IFN-RA combination in human breast carcinoma cells. Overexpression of GRIM-12 causes a small amount of cell death and further enhances the susceptibility of cells to IFN-RA-induced death. Dominant negative inhibitors directed against TR inhibit its cell death-inducing functions. Interference with TR enzymatic activity led to growth promotion in the presence of the IFN-RA combination. Thus, these studies identify a novel function for TR in cell growth regulation.