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Plants have evolved various strategies to sense and respond to saline environments, which severely reduce plant growth and limit agricultural productivity. Alteration to the cell wall is one strategy that helps plants adapt to salt stress. However, the physiological mechanism of how the cell wall components respond to salt stress is not fully understood. Here, we show that expression of XTH30, encoding xyloglucan endotransglucosylase-hydrolase30, is strongly up-regulated in response to salt stress in Arabidopsis. Loss-of-function of XTH30 leads to increased salt tolerance and overexpression of XTH30 results in salt hypersensitivity. XTH30 is located in the plasma membrane and is highly expressed in the root, flower, stem, and etiolated hypocotyl. The NaCl-induced increase in xyloglucan (XyG)-derived oligosaccharide (XLFG) of the wild type is partly blocked in xth30 mutants. Loss-of-function of XTH30 slows down the decrease of crystalline cellulose content and the depolymerization of microtubules caused by salt stress. Moreover, lower Na+ accumulation in shoot and lower H2O2 content are found in xth30 mutants in response to salt stress. Taken together, these results indicate that XTH30 modulates XyG side chains, altered abundance of XLFG, cellulose synthesis, and cortical microtubule stability, and negatively affecting salt tolerance.

Plants have evolved various strategies to sense and respond to saline environments, which severely reduce plant growth and limit agricultural productivity. Alteration to the cell wall is one strategy that helps plants adapt to salt stress. However, the physiological mechanism of how the cell wall components respond to salt stress is not fully understood. Here, we show that expression of XTH30, encoding xyloglucan endotransglucosylase-hydrolase30, is strongly up-regulated in response to salt stress in Arabidopsis. Loss-of-function of XTH30 leads to increased salt tolerance and overexpression of XTH30 results in salt hypersensitivity. XTH30 is located in the plasma membrane and is highly expressed in the root, flower, stem, and etiolated hypocotyl. The NaCl-induced increase in xyloglucan (XyG)-derived oligosaccharide (XLFG) of the wild type is partly blocked in xth30 mutants. Loss-of-function of XTH30 slows down the decrease of crystalline cellulose content and the depolymerization of microtubules caused by salt stress. Moreover, lower Na+ accumulation in shoot and lower H2O2 content are found in xth30 mutants in response to salt stress. Taken together, these results indicate that XTH30 modulates XyG side chains, altered abundance of XLFG, cellulose synthesis, and cortical microtubule stability, and negatively affecting salt tolerance.

Water deficit is a key limiting factor that affects the growth, development and productivity of crops. It is vital to understand the mechanisms by which plants respond to drought stress. Here an N-acetylglutamate kinase gene, ZmNAGK, was cloned from maize (Zea mays). ZmNAGK was expressed at high levels in maize leaves and at lower levels in root, stem, female flower and male flower. The expression of ZmNAGK was significantly induced by PEG, NaCl, ABA, brassinosteroid and H2O2. The ectopic expression of ZmNAGK in tobacco resulted in higher tolerance to drought compared to plants transformed with empty vector. Further physiological analysis revealed that overexpression of ZmNAGK could enhance the activities of antioxidant defense enzymes, and decrease malondialdehyde content and leakage of electrolyte in tobacco under drought stress. Moreover, the ZmNAGK transgenic tobacco accumulated more arginine and nitric oxide (NO) than control plants under drought stress. In addition, the ZmNAGK transgenic tobaccos activated drought responses faster than vector-transformed plants. These results indicate that ZmNAGK can play a vital role in enhancing drought tolerance by likely affecting the arginine and NO accumulation, and ZmNAGK could be involved in different strategies in response to drought stress.

BackgroundWe previously developed several strategies to engineer plants to produce cost-efficient biofuels from plant biomass. Engineered Arabidopsis plants with low xylan and lignin content showed normal growth and improved saccharification efficiency under standard growth conditions. However, it remains to be determined whether these engineered plants perform well under drought stress, which is the primary source of abiotic stress in the field.ResultsUpon exposing engineered Arabidopsis plants to severe drought, we observed better survival rates in those with a low degree of xylan acetylation, low lignin, and low xylan content compared to those in wild-type plants. Increased pectic galactan content had no effect on drought tolerance. The drought-tolerant plants exhibited low water loss from leaves, and drought-responsive genes (RD29A, RD29B, DREB2A) were generally up-regulated under drought stress, which did not occur in the well-watered state. When compared with the wild type, plants with low lignin due to expression of QsuB, a 3-dehydroshikimate dehydratase, showed a stronger response to abscisic acid (ABA) in assays for seed germination and stomatal closure. The low-lignin plants also accumulated more ABA in response to drought than the wild-type plants. On the contrary, the drought tolerance in the engineered plants with low xylan content and low xylan acetylation was not associated with differences in ABA content or response compared to the wild type. Surprisingly, we found a significant increase in galactose levels and sugar released from the low xylan-engineered plants under drought stress.ConclusionsThis study shows that plants engineered to accumulate less lignin or xylan are more tolerant to drought and activate drought responses faster than control plants. This is an important finding because it demonstrates that modification of secondary cell walls does not necessarily render the plants less robust in the environment, and it shows that substantial changes in biomass composition can be achieved without compromising plant resilience.

Water deficit is a key limiting factor that affects the growth, development and productivity of crops. It is vital to understand the mechanisms by which plants respond to drought stress. Here an N-acetylglutamate kinase gene, ZmNAGK, was cloned from maize (Zea mays). ZmNAGK was expressed at high levels in maize leaves and at lower levels in root, stem, female flower and male flower. The expression of ZmNAGK was significantly induced by PEG, NaCl, ABA, brassinosteroid and H2O2. The ectopic expression of ZmNAGK in tobacco resulted in higher tolerance to drought compared to plants transformed with empty vector. Further physiological analysis revealed that overexpression of ZmNAGK could enhance the activities of antioxidant defense enzymes, and decrease malondialdehyde content and leakage of electrolyte in tobacco under drought stress. Moreover, the ZmNAGK transgenic tobacco accumulated more arginine and nitric oxide (NO) than control plants under drought stress. In addition, the ZmNAGK transgenic tobaccos activated drought responses faster than vector-transformed plants. These results indicate that ZmNAGK can play a vital role in enhancing drought tolerance by likely affecting the arginine and NO accumulation, and ZmNAGK could be involved in different strategies in response to drought stress.

BackgroundWe previously developed several strategies to engineer plants to produce cost-efficient biofuels from plant biomass. Engineered Arabidopsis plants with low xylan and lignin content showed normal growth and improved saccharification efficiency under standard growth conditions. However, it remains to be determined whether these engineered plants perform well under drought stress, which is the primary source of abiotic stress in the field.ResultsUpon exposing engineered Arabidopsis plants to severe drought, we observed better survival rates in those with a low degree of xylan acetylation, low lignin, and low xylan content compared to those in wild-type plants. Increased pectic galactan content had no effect on drought tolerance. The drought-tolerant plants exhibited low water loss from leaves, and drought-responsive genes (RD29A, RD29B, DREB2A) were generally up-regulated under drought stress, which did not occur in the well-watered state. When compared with the wild type, plants with low lignin due to expression of QsuB, a 3-dehydroshikimate dehydratase, showed a stronger response to abscisic acid (ABA) in assays for seed germination and stomatal closure. The low-lignin plants also accumulated more ABA in response to drought than the wild-type plants. On the contrary, the drought tolerance in the engineered plants with low xylan content and low xylan acetylation was not associated with differences in ABA content or response compared to the wild type. Surprisingly, we found a significant increase in galactose levels and sugar released from the low xylan-engineered plants under drought stress.ConclusionsThis study shows that plants engineered to accumulate less lignin or xylan are more tolerant to drought and activate drought responses faster than control plants. This is an important finding because it demonstrates that modification of secondary cell walls does not necessarily render the plants less robust in the environment, and it shows that substantial changes in biomass composition can be achieved without compromising plant resilience.

As the major resource of reactive oxygen species (ROS), the NADPH oxidases (Rbohs) have been shown to play important roles in plant cells under normal growth and stress conditions. Although many family members of Rbohs were studied, little is known about the function of RbohI in Arabidopsis thaliana. Here, we report that exogenous ABA application decreases RbohI expression and mannitol significantly increases RbohI expression at transcript level. The RbohI transcripts were strongly detected in dry seeds and roots. The loss-of-function mutant rbohI exhibited sensitivity to ABA and mannitol stress during germination. Furthermore, the lateral root growth of rbohI was severely inhibited after treatment with mannitol stress. Overexpression of RbohI in Arabidopsis significantly improves the drought tolerance. Moreover, more H2O2 accumulated in RbohI overexpressors than in wild type plants in response to mannitol stress. Our conclusion is that AtRbohI functions in drought-stress response in Arabidopsis thaliana.

As the major resource of reactive oxygen species (ROS), the NADPH oxidases (Rbohs) have been shown to play important roles in plant cells under normal growth and stress conditions. Although many family members of Rbohs were studied, little is known about the function of RbohI in Arabidopsis thaliana. Here, we report that exogenous ABA application decreases RbohI expression and mannitol significantly increases RbohI expression at transcript level. The RbohI transcripts were strongly detected in dry seeds and roots. The loss-of-function mutant rbohI exhibited sensitivity to ABA and mannitol stress during germination. Furthermore, the lateral root growth of rbohI was severely inhibited after treatment with mannitol stress. Overexpression of RbohI in Arabidopsis significantly improves the drought tolerance. Moreover, more H2O2 accumulated in RbohI overexpressors than in wild type plants in response to mannitol stress. Our conclusion is that AtRbohI functions in drought-stress response in Arabidopsis thaliana.

Calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase (CCaMK) has been shown to play an important role in abscisic acid (ABA)-induced antioxidant defense and enhance the tolerance of plants to drought stress. However, its downstream molecular events are poorly understood. Here, we identify a NAC transcription factor, ZmNAC84, in maize (Zea mays), which physically interacts with ZmCCaMK in vitro and in vivo. ZmNAC84 displays a partially overlapping expression pattern with ZmCCaMK after ABA treatment, and H2O2 is required for ABA-induced ZmNAC84 expression. Functional analysis reveals that ZmNAC84 is essential for ABA-induced antioxidant defense in a ZmCCaMK-dependent manner. Furthermore, ZmCCaMK directly phosphorylates Ser-113 of ZmNAC84 in vitro, and Ser-113 is essential for the ABA-induced stimulation of antioxidant defense by ZmCCaMK. Moreover, overexpression of ZmNAC84 in tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) can improve drought tolerance and alleviate drought-induced oxidative damage of transgenic plants. These results define a mechanism for ZmCCaMK function in ABA-induced antioxidant defense, where ABA-produced H2O2 first induces expression of ZmCCaMK and ZmNAC84 and activates ZmCCaMK. Subsequently, the activated ZmCCaMK phosphorylates ZmNAC84 at Ser-113, thereby inducing antioxidant defense by activating downstream genes.

Calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase (CCaMK) has been shown to play an important role in abscisic acid (ABA)-induced antioxidant defense and enhance the tolerance of plants to drought stress. However, its downstream molecular events are poorly understood. Here, we identify a NAC transcription factor, ZmNAC84, in maize (Zea mays), which physically interacts with ZmCCaMK in vitro and in vivo. ZmNAC84 displays a partially overlapping expression pattern with ZmCCaMK after ABA treatment, and H2O2 is required for ABA-induced ZmNAC84 expression. Functional analysis reveals that ZmNAC84 is essential for ABA-induced antioxidant defense in a ZmCCaMK-dependent manner. Furthermore, ZmCCaMK directly phosphorylates Ser-113 of ZmNAC84 in vitro, and Ser-113 is essential for the ABA-induced stimulation of antioxidant defense by ZmCCaMK. Moreover, overexpression of ZmNAC84 in tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) can improve drought tolerance and alleviate drought-induced oxidative damage of transgenic plants. These results define a mechanism for ZmCCaMK function in ABA-induced antioxidant defense, where ABA-produced H2O2 first induces expression of ZmCCaMK and ZmNAC84 and activates ZmCCaMK. Subsequently, the activated ZmCCaMK phosphorylates ZmNAC84 at Ser-113, thereby inducing antioxidant defense by activating downstream genes.