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Alginate hydrogels have been widely used as excellent scaffold materials for implantation in biological systems because of their good biocompatibility. However, it is difficult to repair bone defects with these materials because of their poor mechanical properties. The aim of the present study was to fabricate a novel degradable alginate/palygorskite (PAL) composite hydrogel with good mechanical properties and investigate its potential for application in bone defect repair. The modified alginate-based hydrogel with increasing PAL content exhibited better mechanical properties than the original alginate hydrogel. In addition, the resulting composite hydrogel was thoroughly characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). With increasing PAL content, the swelling ratio of the hydrogel increased in PBS (pH = 7.4). In vitro cytocompatibility was evaluated using bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) to confirm that the developed composite hydrogel was cytocompatible after 1, 3, and 7 days. All these results suggest that the developed composite hydrogel has great potential for bone tissue engineering applications. JWH133 is a selective agonist of cannabinoid receptor type 2 (CB2), which exerts dual anti-inflammatory and anti-osteoclastogenic effects. We co-cultured BMSCs with composite hydrogels loaded with JWH133, and analysis of proliferation and osteogenic differentiation indicated that the composite hydrogel loaded with JWH133 may enhance the osteogenic differentiation of rat BMSCs. Furthermore, we found that the composite hydrogel loaded with JWH133 inhibited osteoclast formation and the mRNA expression of osteoclast-specific markers. In summary, the developed composite hydrogel has a high drug-loading capacity, good biocompatibility, and strong potential as a drug carrier for treating osteoporosis by promoting osteoblast and inhibiting osteoclast formation and function.