Search

There is a growing realization on the part of lawmakers, policy experts and practitioners that cyber risks and threat vectors constitute a critical and strategic challenge for all outer space operations. Stakeholders' professional attention and resources are beginning to focus on measures for mitigating these risks and threats. Space-based activities depend on the reliable functionality of computer systems and the wireless communications connecting them through use of the electromagnetic spectrum resource – all of which constitute parts of the infrastructure of cyberspace both on Earth and in space. Thus, cyber risks and vulnerabilities arise in all aspects of outer space operations: satellite launches and their orbital telemetry, tracking, and control (TTC); operational communications (space-to-space, earth-to-space and space-to-earth); and other spectrum-dependent space transmissions. Additional cyber vulnerabilities are present in the terrestrial systems supporting space operations, including launch systems and supply chains for dedicated equipment and services. The mitigation of such cyber threats and vulnerabilities in the more traditional terrestrial context is a rapidly developing area of law and policy aiming to counter the activities of malicious cyber actors whether they are criminals, States or hostile ideological groups. On the one hand, the threat mitigation aspects of cybersecurity have by no means been resolved, as hostile actors use increasingly sophisticated means to achieve their ends. On the other, progress has been made with respect to measures and best practices recognized as critical to boosting cybersecurity for space activities. This article focuses on one of these: information sharing (IS) among trusted participants in a secure platform designed for sharing actionable cybersecurity data. The primary goal of such sharing is to reduce the informational asymmetry between the attacker and the target, whether the latter is a State, private company, or other entity. Cyber attackers leverage their knowledge of the target's vulnerabilities, and only need to be right on one occasion to cause operational, financial, and/or reputational damage that may impair the long-term functionality of the targeted entity. Yet when a group of potential targets can reliably share data on cyber risks and measures to counter them, the informational asymmetry is reduced, and cybersecurity improved. Several conditions exist for optimizing IS which provides actionable information, and for ensuring that trust is developed and maintained among IS participants. Finally, in the context of outer space-related cybersecurity threats, the paper argues that IS proves critical because of two elements: the aggravated asymmetry of cyber threat vectors in outer space, and their distinctive space-related characteristics. • There is a growing realization that cyber risks and threat vectors constitute a critical and strategic challenge for all outer space operations. • Stakeholders' professional attention and resources are focusing on measures for mitigating these risks and threats. • Space-based activities depend on the reliability of computer systems and their wireless connection, – which constitute the infrastructure of cyberspaceon Earth and in space. • Cyber risks and vulnerabilities arise in all aspects of outer space operations, andadditional. • Cyber vulnerabilities are present in the terrestrial systems supporting them. • Several conditions exist for optimizing IS which is actionable, and for ensuring that trust is maintained among IS participants. • Several conditions exist for optimizing IS which is actionable, and for ensuring that trust is maintained among IS participants. • Information sharing for outer space cybersecurity is critical because of the aggravated asymmetry of cyber threat vectors in space and their distinctive space-related characteristics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over the past decade, the number of member states in the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNCOPUOS) has risen by 40%. The UNCOPUOS continues to be one of the largest committees in the United Nations, with recent additions representing many emerging space nations including the Dominican Republic, Rwanda, Angola, Guatemala, and Bangladesh, among many others. This paper addresses the role of emerging space nations in updating and refining current policies and norms of behavior related to the long-term sustainability of the space environment. The paper provides examples of the recent implementation of long-term space sustainability design and operational guidelines in the national space strategies of several emerging space nations, highlighting the importance nations give to the development of legal mechanisms to regulate the peaceful use of the space environment. Examples of both national and regional initiatives are presented including Thailand's 2021 Draft National Space Act, aimed at creating a national legal regime and establishing a governmental agency dedicated to developing space policies for the registration of objects launched into outer space and space debris mitigation measures, and the National Space Law Initiative (NSLI) study group consisting of Australia, Indonesia, India, Japan, Malaysia, the Philippines, the Republic of Korea, Thailand, and Vietnam to create a framework that aims to promote information sharing and mutual learning in relation to the participants' respective national regulatory frameworks for long-term space sustainability. More recently, new initiatives have been developed that celebrate the efforts of satellite mission operators with the aim to reduce the likelihood of space debris and collisions among space objects. The Space Sustainability Rating (SSR) was created by the World Economic Forum, the European Space Agency, the University of Texas at Austin, BryceTech, and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and is now hosted by the EPFL Space Centre. The SSR is a rating system to assess and recognize missions that are designed to be compatible with sustainable and responsible operations, reducing the potential harm to the orbital environment and the impact on other operators. The SSR comprises six modules aimed at assessing missions for their compatibility with sustainable and responsible operations. This paper specifically focuses on evaluating the Detection, Identification and Tracking (DIT) scores for satellite missions launched by emerging space nations. The DIT module of the SSR serves as a standardized measure for assessing space sustainability. The paper adopts an exploratory multi-case study approach. Through this focused study, the paper identifies barriers and unique challenges emerging space nations face, including experiences of operator organizations, launch options, financial constraints, technical options available, and other relevant factors. • Paper title: Role of Emerging Nations in Ensuring Long-term Space Sustainability. • UNCOPUOS membership rises 40%, highlighting emerging nations in space policy. • Emerging space nations prioritize guidelines for peaceful and sustainable space use. • SSR serves as an effective tool for evaluating space sustainability metrics. • Case study on THEOS, CBERS, and SumbandilaSat reveals barriers for new players. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Advances in artificial intelligence (AI) and automated robotics will profoundly influence space operations. By utilising machine learning and deep learning approaches, AI-enabled systems may accomplish tasks as well as improve their own performance. These capabilities are useful in the often-remote settings of outer space and will grow in value as automated space operations become more widespread. As AI extends throughout the space domain, automated algorithms will take on many of the roles that have historically been handled by humans. Artificial intelligence is progressing from theory to implementation in the space environment by exposing new satellites and orbital autonomous vehicles to new data. Even though all initial computational parameters are provided, such systems' outputs can be very unpredictable, putting people, property, and the environment at risk. This paper investigates the application of United Nations space treaties, selected regional AI regulations, and various 'soft-law' instruments and industry initiatives focusing on responsible AI system development to space-based AI systems. Following that, reforms are proposed to clarify the practical relationship between AI systems and the international legal regime that governs space, as well as a 'bottom-up' regulatory approach to better facilitate the future development of regulation governing the use of AI by the global space sector. While this work does not purport to provide a conclusive resolution to these multifaceted matters, its objective is to underscore significant obstacles that arise at the convergence of space law and AI, serving as a preliminary foundation for subsequent discussions on this issue. • Advances in AI and automated robotics will have a profound impact on space operations. Automated algorithms will take on roles traditionally handled by humans as AI becomes more widespread in space. • However, the unpredictable outputs of AI systems can put people, property, and the environment at risk, raising questions about liability. • The paper investigates the application of UN space treaties, regional AI regulations, and industry initiatives to space-based AI systems. • Reforms are proposed to clarify the relationship between AI systems and the international legal regime governing space. • A 'bottom-up' regulatory approach is suggested to facilitate future regulation of AI in the global space sector. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Space Trafic Management (STM) has gained relevance in regional and global strategies when there is more significant congestion in space. Ongoing discussions in the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNCOPUOS) and other fora are reflecting the essence of STM in Europe, in the United States and others. In the US, the 2018 Space Policy Directive-3 on National Space Traffic Management Policy has become a focal eleemnt. More recently, STM was underlined in the European Union – European Space Agency Space Council Orientations of November 2020 as part of the European ambitions to achieve strategic autonomy. In February 2021, the European Commission launched STM as a flagship project under its' Action Plan on Synergies' between the civil, defence, and space industries, aiming to reinforce the European industry's competitiveness. In February 2022, a joint communication on a European Union approach on STM was published. In this regard, STM entails several technological, socio-economic, and regulatory dimensions with significant security implications as reflected in national and regional strategies. This paper focuses on a critical element: the cooperation between the civilian and the military and how organizations effectively address the dual-use aspect concerning STM development under the current legal and regulatory framework. Moreover, it examines how the dual-use element of STM influences space security of space technologies. Successful strategies with tangible outcomes require effective cooperation between the civilian and military actors. Hence, this paper seeks to identify potential legal and regulatory barriers and proposes solutions to accommodate divergent strategic interests and needs in STM future strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the legal basis and framework for the United Nations registration process for space objects. UN registration processes are compared against and contrasted with national and regional registration processes to highlight potential adjustments in light of the need for a space traffic management system. While there are shortfalls in compliance and monitoring of States' responsibility to adhere to UN registration requirements, the growing importance of space traffic management is providing a catalyst for reform and recommitment to the ideals upon which the 1975 UN Registration Convention was based. Since the data provided to national registries and the UN register is not detailed enough and is not sufficient for creating a space traffic management regime, it is recommended that (1) the recommendations concerning the registration of space objects belonging to a large constellation that were agreed by the UNCOPUOS Working Group on the Status and Application of the Five United Nations Treaties on Outer Space in 2023 are implemented to ensure uniformity of registration practice regarding large constellations; (2) States incentivize good registration practices by other States, for instance by requiring that satellites of commercial actors are registered by the relevant launching State as a condition for market access; (3) the importance of furnishing additional information on the subsequent activity and status of objects, as required by the Registration Convention, UN General Assembly resolutions 1721 (XVI) B and 62/101 and Guideline A.5 para 2 of the UNCOPUOS Guidelines on the Long-Term Sustainability of Space Activities, be underlined. • Overview of the UN registration process, including hard law and soft law, in light of space traffic management. • Analysis of the registration processes and practices of the USA, China, Russia and ESA. • Suggestions on enhancing registration practices and processes in light of space traffic management. • Overview of primary sources on registration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Konstantin Tsiolkovsky famously stated that while the Earth serves as the birthplace of humanity, it is not a place where mankind can indefinitely remain. Perhaps during that period, the prospect of exploring the mysteries of outer space appeared to be an unattainable aspiration. However, in the present day, there are no longer any limitations, not even the sky, since human ingenuity has facilitated access to outer space for humanity. This access is not just for the purposes of research and exploration but also for economic endeavours. Until now, the commercial utilisation of outer space has advanced at a very sluggish rate. However, firms including SpaceX, Orion Span, Virgin Galactic, and Blue Origin have achieved significant advancements in the growth of the space industry. The revenue generated by various space-related endeavours has experienced a significant 73% increase over the last ten years. The global space economy, estimated to be valued at USD one trillion in the coming years, is primarily driven by commercial activities. This presents a formidable challenge to the existing national and international taxation systems. Similar to the open seas, space is also considered res communis omnium, meaning it belongs to the entire community, and presents comparable taxing challenges with potentially uncertain solutions. The three fundamental elements of every taxation regulation, such as the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development or the United Nations Model Double Taxation Convention, are the taxpayer's place of residence, the origin of their income, and the methods by which they generate their money. The current tax system does not have the necessary concepts and provisions to adapt to the rapid advancements in commercial space technology. This paper examines the legal issues surrounding commercial activities conducted in space, including the nature and handling of the income generated in various legal systems. It also addresses concerns such as tax avoidance and excessive taxation, emphasising the necessity for a globally coordinated approach to effectively tax commercial activities in space. • Human ingenuity has facilitated access to outer space for humanity, for the purposes of research and exploration and also for economic endeavours. • Space-related endeavours has experienced a significant 73% increase over the last ten years. • Commercial activities conducted in space require concerted action at international level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A comprehensive approach to creating a control system for the shape of the radio-reflecting surface of a large-size space reflector is considered. Large-aperture space antennas are used for satellite communications and space exploration. The design of these structures is one of the most promising areas. Ensuring the specified characteristics of the reflector is directly related to maintaining the specified shape of the radio-reflective netting. Developing a control system for the shape of the active antenna surface is an urgent task. Optimizing this process makes it possible to accomplish the mission during the operational period effectively. The paper evaluates the effects of perturbations on a large-scale structure operating in outer space. A method for adjusting the geometry of the frontal network is proposed. This allows for improved communication between spacecraft and ground stations, which is very important for the safety of space flights. The conductive parts of the reflector are considered to transmit energy and control signals to the actuators. The application results of various control algorithms of the executive device making it possible to correct the netting considering the minimization of energy costs and oscillations of the structure are shown. According to the simulation results, the optimal algorithm of the target criteria hierarchy showed greater stability in terms of convergence in the presence of measurement noise and disturbances, which allows it to be applied in real time. This algorithm is supposed to be used in the future when creating a prototype of the system for controlling the shape of the radio-reflective surface of a large-size space reflector using its current-conducting structural parts. • The design of a system for setting up and maintaining a radio-reflective network fabric has been developed. • Algorithms are developed to minimize energy when setting up a radio-reflective mesh. • The optimal algorithm of the control allows solving the problem in real time. • The method for transmitting energy and control signals through the use of conductive structural parts of the reflector is proposed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this paper is to address STM through an unconventional but pragmatic angle to help optimize efficient compliance governance. This paper proposes using antitrust mechanisms in space as a pragmatic and utilitarian tool for sustainable purposes with regards to STM within a soaring space ecosystem. In the context of accelerated space commercialization and privatization, having a new space antitrust framework at the helm of such transition might indeed prove to be a flexible yet decisive tool into shaping the future of STM and ensuring perennial protection of higher space principles which are enshrined in the Outer Space Treaty and form the essence of space law. On one hand, examples of antitrust key components include fair competition while, on the other hand, higher ethical principles of space law include non-discrimination and benefits sharing. Furthermore, in between these two extremes, security and commerce both rely, respectively on non-harmful interference and competitiveness. To navigate through all these factors, a new space antitrust framework might indeed prove strategic and beneficial to incentivizing the creation of an adaptive, polycentric and action-oriented governance mechanism with great resonance among the commercial new space players and reaffirm the importance of sustainable space traffic management before return on investment, while still making a profit in the long run. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Space habitats, facing extreme conditions in space and on other planetary bodies, should have redundancy and versatility. Although the main challenges in the field have been identified as changes in gravity, radiation protection, extreme temperatures (fluctuations), changes in daylight patterns, and lack of (or less) atmosphere, more (unknown) challenges will inevitably emerge. Therefore, space habitats should extend beyond redundancy and adapt to their surroundings. There are many adaptability strategies for terrestrial habitats but none of these strategies were developed to work in the extreme conditions of outer space. This paper proposes application of a novel adaptability strategy, the Rhythmic Buildings strategy, which aims to develop buildings that adapt to the rhythms of the building's context (frequency, speed, and intensity of changes occurring on the case study location). The strategy is applied to the case study of a Martian habitat at Jezero Crater. The Rhythmic Buildings strategy includes the Rhythmic Framework and its 33 parameters (such as daylight and outdoor temperature) as well as analytical, technical, and design tools – collectively the Rhythmic Toolbox. First, the Framework tool was used to map the changes in the context following the environmental, economy, and society aspects. The rhythms of the case study context include local temperature, pressure, solar radiation, strong weather events (i.e. storms), but also comfort needs of the crew. These rhythms were then translated into a habitat design using an adapted version of the bubble diagram method. Lastly, novel technologies and materials were selected to address the rhythms which includes adaptive properties of materials. Results of the study show that the context's most important challenges are the daily temperature fluctuations and weekly crew schedule, while the most promising adaptability opportunity lies in the daily daylight rhythm. The design that followed the Rhythmic Buildings strategy directly addresses nine out of the 33 parameters and indirectly addresses a further five parameters. The proposed Martian habitat utilises the rhythms of daily temperature cycles and the 24 h daylight rhythm to reinforce the materials structures. The habitat is adaptive and responsive to its surroundings and the crew's needs. In the discussion, speculations are made on how space architecture can develop itself by intrinsically adapting to the rhythms of the environment and evolve into their own typologies, distinctly different than Earth architecture. • Introduces an adaptability strategy for Space Architecture called Rhythmic Buildings. • Using a novel analysis and design Toolbox to design a Martian habitat. • Design of a habitat that responds to the rhythms of the context. • Outlines criteria for the use of responsive materials and ISRU. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Entrepreneurs and blue-chip corporations alike are seeking to capitalize on outer space's bountifulness, setting the NewSpace industry's growth ablaze and establishing an engine for an economic and technological revolution. However, meaningful impediments that could stifle the industry's growth are still present. The wide array of newly forming opportunities, pursued by a myriad of actors with various interests, encourages national legislatures to regulate where current international law leaves uncertainty. Such encouragement has created a landscape of conflicting national legislations, which thereby constructs an environment of regulatory competition as states vie for the attention of the NewSpace industry. This paper assesses some of the regulatory competitions already underway as well as provides insights into likely future competitions as technology improves and interest in NewSpace grows. Ultimately, this paper finds and warns of the effects of these competitions; specifically that, in many cases, the rise of regulatory competition threatens to lower the standards of governing policies. In such circumstances, this paper foresees the growing possibility of inhibiting the development of NewSpace, an unsettling outcome and a worthy cause for concern. • There is a lot of uncertainty when applying the current space law to private actors. • Uncertainty slows growth & impacts flow of private capital creating legal vacuum. • Governments writing national laws to fill vacuum creates regulatory competitions. • Regulatory competitions has & will lower industry standards hurting NewSpace growth. • Some international agreements, modernized for NewSpace, are needed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As the number of artificial satellites put into orbit around Earth is growing very rapidly for scientific, commercial, defence or educational purposes, the need to take measures to improve safety of space operations and to contribute to the long-term sustainability of outer space activities are becoming more and more important. This paper provides an analysis of the main identified challenges to be addressed by space traffic management (STM) and an overview of a set of actions considered to tackle those challenges. The complementarity of political guidelines, regulation, standardization and operational capabilities is discussed, taking into account the need to combine the expected efficiency of the proposed actions with European industry competitiveness and also national and European security constraints. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]