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How does a country embark on large-scale R&D programs? Among R&D programs, this is an intriguing question for large scale Science and Technology (S&T) projects such as space programs, because of the necessity for large resource commitments, and the difficulty of being accountable to the taxpayers when the outcome is not always known. It can be assumed that engineers, scientists, bureaucrats, and politicians play respective roles. This paper aims to shed light on the specific role of politics, through the examples of policies of and decisions by NAKASONE Yasuhiro. Nakasone was the minister for science and technology (1959–1960, 1972), and later became the prime minister (1982–1987). He played a crucial role in establishing the Science and Technology Agency and the National Space Activities Council in the 1950s, which would be the foundational institutions responsible for space policy for the next half century. As prime minister, he decided to participate in the Space Station program. Within his vision for Japan for the 21st century, he emphasized the need for radical change in economic policy, education, defense and S&T investment. He was one of the few politicians that had vision to promote S&T and recognized the strategic value to the nation. He was able to explain to the nation why Japan should promote the development of a launch vehicle, when the engineers faced development difficulties in doing so. Thus, he was influential both in the policy layer and in promoting specific programs to support his national vision. Politics intersects with S&T projects because of the uncertainty and tradeoffs associated with these efforts. Japan did not address space programs for national security and commercial space for a long time. It is a politician's role to create institutions, to allocate resources and, more importantly, to explain to the taxpayers why policy measures or programs are necessary. R&D investment is a societal activity: it reflects the social, political, and economic situation, as well as being important for diplomacy and international relations. Bearing in mind that it would be misleading to attribute the initiation of largescale S&T projects to the leadership of a single individual, this paper will attempt to show the driving forces behind, and fundamental objective of Japan's space policy, in addition to the historical shift in that policy by examining the influence of this notable politician. • Nakasone played the key role in establishing institutions promoting space development in post-war Japan. • Nakasone made the best use of close relationships with the U.S. in promoting Japan's space activities. • Nakasone made decisions on space policy process, resource allocation with vision, thus integrating the stakeholders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this paper is to study the birth of space age and the distinguished achievements in the space-age painting aesthetics inspired by space exploration. It has been 66 years ever since the first successfully launch of the artificial satellite Sputnik 1 on October 4, 1957, generally recognized as the first year of space age. Exemplified by the best and most well-known "NASA Art Program", many major space agencies have sponsored the art program. In Japan, the Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) supports the art program through its Public Affairs Department. In the European Space Agency (ESA), one of its well-known residence artists is Aoife van Linden Tol. For 66 years of the space age, there are many outstanding painters with many distinguished achievements and heritage of aesthetic paintings created. In particular, Robert Rauschenberg's work " Buffalo II " painted in 1964 has become a classic masterpiece that realized the price of $ 88 million at Christie's auction in 2019. • It has been 65 years since the launch of Sputnik 1 in 1957 generally recognized as the first year of space age. • After the well-known "NASA Art Program", many major space agencies have sponsored the art program. • In Japan, the Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) supports the art program through its Public Affairs Department. • In the European Space Agency (ESA), one of its well-known residence artists is Aoife van Linden Tol. • Robert Rauschenberg's work " Buffalo II " painted in 1964 priced $88 million at Christie's auction in 2019. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Japan's second asteroid explorer Hayabusa2 was successfully launched on Dec 3, 2014, to return a sample from asteroid 162173 Ryugu by 2020. Four xenon ion thrusters based on electron cyclotron resonance discharge propelled the spacecraft for 547 h during its first year in space. Hayabusa2 completed an Earth gravity assist on Dec 3, 2015, followed by 798 and 2593 h of ion thruster operation, called the first and second transfer phases of delta-v, respectively. The third transfer phase of delta-v was conducted from Jan 10, 2018, to Jun 6, 2018, in which the final 2475-h ion thruster operation was executed before the rendezvous with Ryugu. The cumulative operating times for the four ion thrusters are 6,450, 11, 5,193, and 6418 h. This paper summarizes the 6515-h powered flight by the ion engine system, which produced 1015 m/s delta-v, in terms of thruster performance change, roll torques generated by various combinations of ion thrusters, and spacecraft surface erosion history measured by two quartz crystal microbalances located near the thrusters. In parallel with the space flight operation, an engineering model of the microwave discharge neutralizer has been under long-duration testing on the ground since 2012. It has accumulated 55,170 h of diode-mode operation as of Mar 15, 2019. • Hayabusa2, JAXA's asteroid explorer arrived at its destination, asteroid Ryugu. • A cluster of four microwave discharge ion engines worked very well. • The cumulative operation time was 6515 h, producing 1015 m/s delta-v. • An engineering model of the neutralizer has passed 55,170 h of ground operation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of Electric Propulsion (EP) on satellites for commercial, defense, and space science missions has been increasing in recent decades, from the first successful operation in 1964 aboard the Zond-2 spacecraft to the present day. This paper provides an overview of the technological and commercial development of EP systems that have been deployed. A review of the early years of EP application ends in 1980, when the first geostationary commercial satellite using EP, Intelsat-V, was launched. Beyond 1980, all EP-based spacecraft deployment data through 2018 are presented, divided by spacecraft type: GEO-synchronous satellite, LEO satellites, deep-space missions and small satellites. To date, a total of 587 spacecraft have been launched with some variant of electric propulsion. During the 1960s and 1970s, all 48 spacecraft using EP were government missions, with the US and USSR leading in the development, production, and flight of these systems. These first platforms included a variety of pulsed plasma thrusters, resistojets, arcjets, ion thrusters and Hall thrusters. The number of GEO satellites with electric propulsion systems has increased significantly since 1981, from an average of less than 5 satellites per year during the 1980s to over 15 in recent years. The corresponding annual fraction of EP based GEO satellite launches, compared to all GEO satellite launches, has increased from 20% during the 1980s to over 40% in recent years. For LEO applications, a gradual increase in the utilization of EP has been realized. Of the 167 EP-based LEO platforms deployed, resistojets were the most prolific legacy thruster type (124 S/C) with Hall thrusters gaining traction in recent years (25 S/C), appearing on 19 of 45 satellite missions in the past decade. Of all EP-based LEO missions, approximately half served as testbeds for new technologies. Through 2018, eight deep space spacecraft with EP have been launched, with the US, Japan, and the European Union leading these efforts. Small satellites are also benefiting from this technology, with 24 EP-based small satellites launched to date. Nearly half of these were launched between 2016 and 2018, demonstrating accelerated growth and a large potential for the future of this spacecraft class. • Overview of all electric propulsion missions, divided into mission classes. • For each mission type statistics are presented on the different thruster subclasses. • Arguments are given for the historical trends of the use of electric propulsion subclasses. • Current trends, for the growth/use of classes of electric propulsion, are analyzed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]