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How does a country embark on large-scale R&D programs? Among R&D programs, this is an intriguing question for large scale Science and Technology (S&T) projects such as space programs, because of the necessity for large resource commitments, and the difficulty of being accountable to the taxpayers when the outcome is not always known. It can be assumed that engineers, scientists, bureaucrats, and politicians play respective roles. This paper aims to shed light on the specific role of politics, through the examples of policies of and decisions by NAKASONE Yasuhiro. Nakasone was the minister for science and technology (1959–1960, 1972), and later became the prime minister (1982–1987). He played a crucial role in establishing the Science and Technology Agency and the National Space Activities Council in the 1950s, which would be the foundational institutions responsible for space policy for the next half century. As prime minister, he decided to participate in the Space Station program. Within his vision for Japan for the 21st century, he emphasized the need for radical change in economic policy, education, defense and S&T investment. He was one of the few politicians that had vision to promote S&T and recognized the strategic value to the nation. He was able to explain to the nation why Japan should promote the development of a launch vehicle, when the engineers faced development difficulties in doing so. Thus, he was influential both in the policy layer and in promoting specific programs to support his national vision. Politics intersects with S&T projects because of the uncertainty and tradeoffs associated with these efforts. Japan did not address space programs for national security and commercial space for a long time. It is a politician's role to create institutions, to allocate resources and, more importantly, to explain to the taxpayers why policy measures or programs are necessary. R&D investment is a societal activity: it reflects the social, political, and economic situation, as well as being important for diplomacy and international relations. Bearing in mind that it would be misleading to attribute the initiation of largescale S&T projects to the leadership of a single individual, this paper will attempt to show the driving forces behind, and fundamental objective of Japan's space policy, in addition to the historical shift in that policy by examining the influence of this notable politician. • Nakasone played the key role in establishing institutions promoting space development in post-war Japan. • Nakasone made the best use of close relationships with the U.S. in promoting Japan's space activities. • Nakasone made decisions on space policy process, resource allocation with vision, thus integrating the stakeholders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this paper is to study the birth of space age and the distinguished achievements in the space-age painting aesthetics inspired by space exploration. It has been 66 years ever since the first successfully launch of the artificial satellite Sputnik 1 on October 4, 1957, generally recognized as the first year of space age. Exemplified by the best and most well-known "NASA Art Program", many major space agencies have sponsored the art program. In Japan, the Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) supports the art program through its Public Affairs Department. In the European Space Agency (ESA), one of its well-known residence artists is Aoife van Linden Tol. For 66 years of the space age, there are many outstanding painters with many distinguished achievements and heritage of aesthetic paintings created. In particular, Robert Rauschenberg's work " Buffalo II " painted in 1964 has become a classic masterpiece that realized the price of $ 88 million at Christie's auction in 2019. • It has been 65 years since the launch of Sputnik 1 in 1957 generally recognized as the first year of space age. • After the well-known "NASA Art Program", many major space agencies have sponsored the art program. • In Japan, the Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) supports the art program through its Public Affairs Department. • In the European Space Agency (ESA), one of its well-known residence artists is Aoife van Linden Tol. • Robert Rauschenberg's work " Buffalo II " painted in 1964 priced $88 million at Christie's auction in 2019. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Japan's second asteroid explorer Hayabusa2 was successfully launched on Dec 3, 2014, to return a sample from asteroid 162173 Ryugu by 2020. Four xenon ion thrusters based on electron cyclotron resonance discharge propelled the spacecraft for 547 h during its first year in space. Hayabusa2 completed an Earth gravity assist on Dec 3, 2015, followed by 798 and 2593 h of ion thruster operation, called the first and second transfer phases of delta-v, respectively. The third transfer phase of delta-v was conducted from Jan 10, 2018, to Jun 6, 2018, in which the final 2475-h ion thruster operation was executed before the rendezvous with Ryugu. The cumulative operating times for the four ion thrusters are 6,450, 11, 5,193, and 6418 h. This paper summarizes the 6515-h powered flight by the ion engine system, which produced 1015 m/s delta-v, in terms of thruster performance change, roll torques generated by various combinations of ion thrusters, and spacecraft surface erosion history measured by two quartz crystal microbalances located near the thrusters. In parallel with the space flight operation, an engineering model of the microwave discharge neutralizer has been under long-duration testing on the ground since 2012. It has accumulated 55,170 h of diode-mode operation as of Mar 15, 2019. • Hayabusa2, JAXA's asteroid explorer arrived at its destination, asteroid Ryugu. • A cluster of four microwave discharge ion engines worked very well. • The cumulative operation time was 6515 h, producing 1015 m/s delta-v. • An engineering model of the neutralizer has passed 55,170 h of ground operation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This paper describes achievements of the IKAROS project, the world''s first successful interplanetary solar power sail technology demonstration mission. It was developed by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) and was launched from Tanegashima Space Center on May 21, 2010. IKAROS successfully deployed a 20m-span sail on June 9, 2010. Since then IKAROS has performed interplanetary solar-sailing taking advantage of an Earth-Venus leg of the interplanetary trajectory. We declared the completion of the nominal mission phase in the end of December 2010 when IKAROS successfully passed by Venus with the assist of solar sailing. This paper describes the overview of the IKAROS spacecraft system, how the world''s first interplanetary solar sailer has been operated and what were achieved by the end of the nominal mission phase. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The use of Electric Propulsion (EP) on satellites for commercial, defense, and space science missions has been increasing in recent decades, from the first successful operation in 1964 aboard the Zond-2 spacecraft to the present day. This paper provides an overview of the technological and commercial development of EP systems that have been deployed. A review of the early years of EP application ends in 1980, when the first geostationary commercial satellite using EP, Intelsat-V, was launched. Beyond 1980, all EP-based spacecraft deployment data through 2018 are presented, divided by spacecraft type: GEO-synchronous satellite, LEO satellites, deep-space missions and small satellites. To date, a total of 587 spacecraft have been launched with some variant of electric propulsion. During the 1960s and 1970s, all 48 spacecraft using EP were government missions, with the US and USSR leading in the development, production, and flight of these systems. These first platforms included a variety of pulsed plasma thrusters, resistojets, arcjets, ion thrusters and Hall thrusters. The number of GEO satellites with electric propulsion systems has increased significantly since 1981, from an average of less than 5 satellites per year during the 1980s to over 15 in recent years. The corresponding annual fraction of EP based GEO satellite launches, compared to all GEO satellite launches, has increased from 20% during the 1980s to over 40% in recent years. For LEO applications, a gradual increase in the utilization of EP has been realized. Of the 167 EP-based LEO platforms deployed, resistojets were the most prolific legacy thruster type (124 S/C) with Hall thrusters gaining traction in recent years (25 S/C), appearing on 19 of 45 satellite missions in the past decade. Of all EP-based LEO missions, approximately half served as testbeds for new technologies. Through 2018, eight deep space spacecraft with EP have been launched, with the US, Japan, and the European Union leading these efforts. Small satellites are also benefiting from this technology, with 24 EP-based small satellites launched to date. Nearly half of these were launched between 2016 and 2018, demonstrating accelerated growth and a large potential for the future of this spacecraft class. • Overview of all electric propulsion missions, divided into mission classes. • For each mission type statistics are presented on the different thruster subclasses. • Arguments are given for the historical trends of the use of electric propulsion subclasses. • Current trends, for the growth/use of classes of electric propulsion, are analyzed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Institute of Space and Astronautical Science (ISAS) of Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) is currently planning the missions that the small probe ‘interceptor’ flybys near Earth objects. Interceptor is very small probe. An interceptor observes spectrum, takes close images, and determines mass of an NEO (near earth object) during a flyby. The weight of interceptor is less than 10kg. This paper shows three types of missions. In general, it is impossible to determine the relative orbit during flyby only with optical information. Thus, the optical navigation needs to be combined with the radio navigation that should provide the relative velocity vector information. In this paper, the integrated guidance and navigation strategy of interceptor is proposed. The interceptor needs the thruster for the attitude and orbit control. This paper introduces the development of the gas-thrust equilibrium thruster for small satellites. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper examines the specific features of the main Japanese space projects in recent years and scheduled for the near future. Japans’ space projects have been characterized by a few big projects for technologically experimental space missions including the International Space Station (ISS). Although space projects concerned with national security issues have occupied a substantial share of Japan''s space activities in recent years, the outputs have been kept secret from the public. Truly meaningful missions like a weather satellite have been limited. Thus in total, Japan''s space development is still biased toward technology-push type rather than utilization-oriented type projects which are beneficial to the quality of life for the public. The Japan Aeronautical Exploration Agency (JAXA) revealed its new vision in 2005. Although the vision presents a few novel ideas, it is doubtful whether Japan could implement so many diversified space projects. Taking into account Japan''s factor endowments and comparative advantage, it would be better if Japan could pursue alternative meaningful space development projects. For that purpose, a number of proposals will be made. This paper also stresses the importance of promoting international cooperation projects in space development and application areas, particularly the need for more regional cooperation in Asia. In addition, more utilization of ODA for space development and application projects is also suggested. A new paradigm toward more meaningful space development and applications will be presented. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The purpose of this paper is to discuss the R&D for the future communications satellite, considering the expansion of human space activities in the future. It is described that the future vision of satellite communications R&D with three generations over 30 years. It is also described that the manned space development will be going to be discussed in Japan. It is emphasized that the high capacity information communications system is needed for the security of the manned space activities. The paper discusses that the impact of future manned space development to the satellite communications R&D. The topics include not only earth orbiting activities but also its expansion to the moon. As a manned space information communication infrastructure, it is a global communication network in the first generation. Therefore substantiality of data relay satellites is above all necessary. Speedup of a global communication network is a main issue in the second generation. Furthermore, assuming that the manned space activity spreads to the moon, and a high-speed communication network between the moon/earth stations, a stationary satellite of the moon and connection with a global network will become an issue. We show examples of the system and the items of technology R&D. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In the mid-1980s, Japan decided not only to invest in a totally domestic rocket, “H-II,” to acquire its independent access to space, but also to participate in the U.S. Space Station program to promote international space cooperation. Not until then did Japan try to achieve simultaneously both autonomy and international cooperation. This paper reexamines how Japan achieved a balance between autonomy and international cooperation in its space activities during the 1980s, from the perspective of Japan–U.S. diplomatic history. Against the background of the Japan–U.S. relations of those days, the similarities and differences between the two big space programs made it possible for Japan to decide them at the same time of the mid-1980s. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Cute-1.7+APD II is the 3rd satellite developed by the Laboratory for Space Systems at the Tokyo Institute of Technology. Cute-1.7+APD II is the current successor to Cute-1.7+APD. This new satellite is based on its predecessor but has some modifications to increase its reliability and robustness against radiation effects, electrical power shortage and so on. The satellite was launched by an ISRO PSLV-C9 rocket on April 28, 2008 and has operated for more than 9 months. Throughout its operation, many missions such as attitude determination and control experiments, scientific observations, photographing and communication experiments have been conducted. In this paper an overview of the Cute-1.7 series and configurations, modifications and operation results of Cute-1.7+APD II are introduced. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency has a plan to develop the small satellite standard bus for various scientific missions and disaster monitoring missions. The satellite bus is a class of 250–400kg mass with three-axis control capability of accuracy. The science missions include X-ray astronomy missions, planetary telescope missions, and magnetosphere atmosphere missions. In order to adapt the wide range of mission requirements, the satellite bus has to be provided with flexibility. The concepts of modularization, reusability, and product line are applied to the standard bus system. This paper describes the characteristics of the small satellite standard bus which will be firstly launched in 2011. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In the sector of information and communication technologies (ICT), whether in the USA, Japan, or Europe, innovative services are already in use, based on large-scale space-based infrastructure investments. Such systems are e.g. earth observation, telecommunication, and navigation, timing and positioning satellites. In combination with the advent of powerful handheld terminals and the demand for ubiquitous services, it is expected that info-mobility applications will reveal new sources of business in the years ahead, using in particular the Earth observation and future GALILEO systems to position any feature or user anywhere in the world within a few meter accuracy. Hence, satellite-based capabilities provide new and unique opportunities for economic stimulation and development. Many incubators and innovation centers in Europe have already grasped this growth potential. Yet, for many European players business growth appears below expectations compared to developments in the USA following the launch of GPS (Global Positioning System). Europe still has to overcome intrinsic barriers to seize these new business opportunities faster and with more visible economic impact by leveraging on SMEs and regional innovation centers to expand the commercial utilization of satellite capabilities and mobilization of appropriate financial resources. The paper elaborates on the INVESat project (funded by the EuropeInnova—European Commission), which aims at bridging the gap between Innovative enterprises and financial InVEstors in the emerging markets of SaTellite applications. The critical success factors required to stimulate and support more efficiently investments in this bread of innovative services will also be highlighted. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Since the number of satellites in Earth orbit is steadily increasing, space debris will eventually pose a serious problem to near-Earth space activities if left unchecked, and so effective measures to mitigate it are becoming urgent. Equipping new satellites with an end-of-life de-orbit or orbital lifetime reduction capability could be an effective means of reducing the amount of debris by reducing the probability of the collisions between objects. On the other hand, the active removal of space debris and the retrieval of failed satellites by spacecraft are other possible measures. The Institute of Aerospace Technology, Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), is studying a micro-satellite system for active space debris removal, and is examining the applicability of electro-dynamic tether (EDT) technology as its high efficiency orbital transfer system. A small EDT package provides a possible means for lowering the orbits of objects without the need for propellant. Capture is indispensable for the retrieval of large space debris objects, and we propose a flexible robot arm for this purpose. This paper discusses a space debris removal satellite system and describes the development status of prototypes of the EDT package and a new robot arm for capturing non-cooperative targets. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: By using electrodynamic drag to greatly increase the orbital decay rate, an electrodynamic space tether can remove spent or dysfunctional spacecraft from low Earth orbit (LEO) rapidly and safely. Moreover, the low mass requirements of such tether devices make them highly advantageous compared to conventional rocket-based de-orbit systems. However, a tether system is much more vulnerable to space debris impacts than a typical spacecraft and its design must be proved to be safe up to a certain confidence level before being adopted for potential applications. To assess space debris related concerns, in March 2001 a new task (Action Item 19.1) on the “Potential Benefits and Risks of Using Electrodynamic Tethers for End-of-life De-orbit of LEO Spacecraft” was defined by the Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee (IADC). Two tests were proposed to compute the fatal impact rate of meteoroids and orbital debris on space tethers in circular orbits, at different altitudes and inclinations, as a function of the tether diameter to assess the survival probability of an electrodynamic tether system during typical de-orbiting missions. IADC members from three agencies, the Italian Space Agency (ASI), the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) and the US National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), participated in the study and different computational approaches were specifically developed within the framework of the IADC task. This paper summarizes the content of the IADC AI 19.1 Final Report. In particular, it introduces the potential benefits and risks of using tethers in space, it describes the assumptions made in the study plan, it compares and discusses the results obtained by ASI, JAXA and NASA for the two tests proposed. Some general conclusions and recommendations are finally extrapolated from this massive and intensive piece of research. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The M-V launch vehicle of Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) has successfully injected Japan''s fifth X-ray space telescope “SUZAKU” into its low earth orbit in this past July. The attitude and vibration control algorithm of the M-V rocket used to be highlighted by its robust stability since its first flight conducted in 1997. Beyond this, its robustness character has been further enhanced using the -synthesis approach to get better robust characteristics not only in stability but in tracking performance under uncertainty of the system dynamics. The performance has been validated by the latest back-to-back successful flights of the vehicle: in May 2003 to directly inject Japan''s first asteroid sample return spaceship “HAYABUSA” into the planned inter-planetary trajectory and in this past July to launch the telescope. The -synthesis has been applied for the first time ever for Japan''s launcher control beyond the reliable design. The plant dynamics has an extremely high-order and unstable characteristics, thus the standard -synthesis format cannot be directly applied. The paper gives a unique methodology to apply the theory to such a real high-order complicated system. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: 50 years have passed since a tiny rocket “Pencil” was launched horizontally at Kokubunji near Tokyo in 1955. Though there existed high level of rocket technology in Japan before the end of the second World War, it was not succeeded by the country after the War. Pencil therefore was the substantial start of Japanese rocketry that opened the way to the present stage. In the meantime, a rocket group of the University of Tokyo contributed to the International Geophysical Year in 1957–1958 by developing bigger rockets, and in 1970, the group succeeded in injecting first Japanese satellite OHSUMI into earth orbit. It was just before the launch of OHSUMI that Japan had built up the double feature system of science and applications in space efforts. The former has been pursued by ISAS (the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science) of the University of Tokyo, and the latter by NASDA (National Space Development Agency). This unique system worked quite efficiently because space activities in scientific and applicational areas could develop rather independently without affecting each other. Thus Japan''s space science ran up rapidly to the international stage under the support of solid propellant rocket technology, and, after a 20 year technological introduction period from the US, a big liquid propellant launch vehicle, H-II, at last was developed on the basis of Japan''s own technology in the early 1990''s. On October 1, 2003, as a part of Governmental Reform, three Japanese space agencies were consolidated into a single agency, JAXA (Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency), and Japan''s space efforts began to walk toward the future in a globally coordinated fashion, including aeronautics, astronautics, space science, satellite technology, etc., at the same time. This paper surveys the history of Japanese rocketry briefly, and draws out the lessons from it to make a new history of Japan''s space efforts more meaningful. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Small satellites, especially pico- or nano-class satellites, are considered to provide good opportunity for technology demonstration. University of Tokyo''s pico-satellite “XI-V”, which was scheduled to be launched in September 2005, was developed in 1 year with the mission to test newly developed solar cells. This paper introduces the details of the mission and its effective operation using the network of ground stations. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: University of Tokyo and Kobe University are planning a sounding rocket experiment of large membrane “Furoshiki Satellite” extension and large phased array RF transmission. The paper will describe the concept of “Furoshiki Satellite,” its application to phased array antenna, and the scenario of micro gravity experiment using a small sounding rocket. University of Tokyo has been proposing the idea of “Furoshiki Satellite,” a large membrane or a net structure, say in size, extended by satellites which hold its corners. The attitude and the shape of the membrane or net structure is controlled by these corner satellites. As one application of Furoshiki Satellite, a large phased array antenna can be configured by several RF transmitters placed on several parts of the large net structure. It is difficult to control the position and attitude of the RF transmitters precisely, but using the “retro-directive” method, the tolerance of such position and attitude disturbance will be relaxed by large. This is one of promising systems’ concept of the future large solar power satellite or large antenna, because quite a large area can be obtained without any hard structure, and the weight will not depend very much on the size [S. Motohashi, T. Nagamura, Large scaled membrane structure Furoshiki Satellite—its concept and orbital/attitude dynamics, in: Proceedings of 20th International Symposium on Space Technology and Science (ISTS), 1996, p. 96-n-14]. To demonstrate the feasibility of the extension of large net structure and phased array performance, micro-gravity experiment is planned using a sounding rocket of ISAS/JAXA, Japan. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

On February 4th 1994, the maiden flight of H-II rocket was successfully conducted. With the completion of H-II development work, Japan has eventually got a world level spacecraft launching capability and both 1000 and 100 kN thrust class LOX/LH2 engines, LE-7 and LE-5A.H-II will be a work-horse rocket for Japan''s near-term future space activities. A number of studies for improving vehicle launching capability and further cost reduction are under considerations, with regard to Upgraded H-II rocket; H-IIA rocket which will be launched on 1st February 2000. The LE-7A and LE-5B are key components of the H-IIA propulsion system and also the main subject of study in these improvement plans.This paper overviews the current status of LE-7A and LE-5B according to the H-IIA configurations. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]