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With the deepening of space exploration, the moon has significant value for scientific research. However, because of such research's costs and risks, international cooperation will be critical for the future lunar exploration. In 2021, China and Russia jointly initiated the International Lunar Research Station (ILRS) project and released the Guide for Partnership (V1.0). However, the basic regulatory framework for creating the ILRS project is not yet in place, posing a challenge to pursuing this complex and technically ambitious endeavor. The paradigm of international cooperation that was the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) project set a good example of how scientific research could transcend geographic boundaries. This paper examines the ITER Agreement, the constitutive agreement of the ITER, and analyzes the successful experience of large-scale international cooperation on a complex scientific project. Then, in view of the characteristics of the ILRS project and the existing space law, the main elements of a regulatory framework for international cooperation on this project are proposed, which follows the ITER Agreement closely. The paper concludes that such a regulatory framework for international cooperation on the ILRS project may contribute to the peaceful exploration and use of the moon, thus promoting the well-being and interests of humankind. • The moon has significant value for scientific research. • International cooperation will be critical for the future lunar exploration. • A regulatory framework for the International Lunar Research Station (ILRS) is not in place. • The paradigm of international cooperation on the ITER set a good example. • The main elements of a regulatory framework for the ILRS are proposed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In terms of cataloged debris produced, the anti-satellite test carried out by Russia, in November 2021, at an altitude of about 480 km, leading to the destruction of the old satellite Cosmos 1408, was the second worst to date and represented the third worst fragmentation in orbit. It generated more than 1/4 of the cataloged debris produced over 55 years by all such tests and almost twice as many as were produced by all previous Soviet tests. After placing this event in its historical context, this paper analyzes in detail how the evolution of the Cosmos 1408 debris cloud affected the environment below 600 km in the first seven months, focusing on the two operational space stations and the Starlink large constellation of satellites. During the first six months following the test, the Cosmos 1408 cloud of fragments nearly doubled the average flux of cataloged objects on the International Space Station and increased by about 3/4 that on China's Tiangong. In the same period, the Starlink large constellation saw an average increase in the flux of cataloged objects of about 20%. Some orbital planes, the "counter-rotating" ones with respect to the Cosmos 1408 debris cloud, were more affected than others, and the affected planes gradually changed over time, due to the differential precession of cloud and constellation nodes. However, being the Starlink constellation 70 km higher up, the flux of Cosmos 1408 cataloged debris steadily decreased over the period analyzed, due to the cloud orbital decay, reducing to just over a quarter of its extrapolated initial value after seven months. • A review of ASAT tests as a source of orbital debris was presented. • The impact of the Cosmos 1408 destruction was put into context. • The cataloged debris flux increase on space stations was computed and discussed. • The debris flux increase and evolution on Starlink orbit planes was analyzed. • A moratorium on this type of ASAT tests was recommended, including low LEO. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Studies on extraterrestrial civilisations in Russia date back to the end of the 19th century. The modern period of SETI studies began in the USSR in the early 1960s. The first edition of the I.S. Shklovsky's book Universe, Life, Intelligence published in 1962 was a founding stone of SETI research in the USSR. A number of observational projects in radio and optical domains were conducted in the 1960s–1990s. Theoretical studies focused on defining optimal spectral domains for search of artificial electromagnetic signals, selection of celestial targets in search for ETI, optimal methods for encoding and decoding of interstellar messages, estimating the magnitude of astro-engineering activity of ETI, and developing philosophical background of the SETI problem. Later, in the 1990s and in the first two decades of the 21st century, in spite of acute underfunding and other problems facing the scientific community in Russia and other countries of the former Soviet Union, SETI-oriented research continued. In particular, SETI collaborations conducted a number of surveys of Sun-like stars in the Milky Way, searched for Dyson spheres and artificial optical signals. Several space broadcasting programs were conducted too, including a radio transmission toward selected stars. Serious rethinking was given to incentives for passive and active participation of space civilisations in SETI and CETI. This paper gives an overview of past SETI activities. It also gives a comprehensive list of publications by authors from Russia, the Soviet Union and the post-Soviet space, as well as some SETI publications by other authors. The rich heritage of SETI research presented in the paper might offer a potentially useful background and starting point for developing strategy and specific research programs of the near future. • Search for extraterrestrial intelligence as a multi-disciplinary science topic. • A century-long history of studies on cosmic civilisations in Russia and USSR. • A comprehensive list of references on search of extraterrestrial intelligence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract In 2013, the well-known Chelyabinsk meteor entered the Earth's atmosphere over Chelyabinsk, Russia. It is estimated that the meteor exploded at altitude near 30 km, which damaged thousands of buildings and injured a thousand of residents. The estimated size of the meteor is approximately 20 m. Because the meteor approached to Earth from Sun direction, no ground-based observatories could not detect until the impact. Considering such situations, the paper proposes a concept to detect Chelyabinsk-class small Near-Earth Objects. The concept addresses a "last-minute" warning system of NEO impact, in the same manner of "Tsunami" warning. To achieve the mission objective, two locations are assumed for the space telescope installation point i.e., Sun-Earth Lagrange point 1, SEL1 and Artificial Equilibrium Point, AEP. SEL1 is one of the natural equilibrium points, on the other hand, AEP is artificially equilibrated point by Sun and Earth gravity, centrifugal force and low-thrust acceleration. The magnitude of the acceleration to keep AEP is sufficiently small near 1 au radius orbit around the Sun i.e., the order of μm/s2 which can be achieved by solar sail. Through some cases of numerical simulations considering the size of NEOs and detector capability, this paper will show the feasibility of the proposed concept. Highlights • This is a concept study of a hazardous NEO detection and impact warning system. • It is assumed to use space-based telescopes to detect virtual impactors before the impact. • Sun-Earth L1 point and Artificial Equilibrium Point are used for space-telescope. • SEL1 case shows the deficiency to detect NEOs in-coming from Sun-direction. • On the other hand, AEP case shows almost 100% detectability of NEOs.5th IAA Planetary Defense Conference – PDC 2017. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The two-day stay of crew in a limited inhabited volume of the Soyuz-TMA spacecraft till docking to ISS is one of the most stressful parts of space flight. In this paper a number of possible ways to reduce the duration of the free flight phase are considered. The duration is defined by phasing strategy that is necessary for reduction of the phase angle between the chaser and target spacecraft. Some short phasing strategies could be developed. The use of such strategies creates more comfortable flight conditions for crew thanks to short duration and additionally it allows saving spacecraft’s life support resources. The transition from the methods of direct spacecraft rendezvous using one orbit phasing (first flights of “Vostok” and “Soyuz” vehicles) to the currently used methods of two-day rendezvous mission can be observed in the history of Soviet manned space program. For an advanced Russian human rated spacecraft the short phasing strategy is recommended, which can be considered as a combination between the direct and two-day rendezvous missions. The following state of the art technologies are assumed available: onboard accurate navigation; onboard computations of phasing maneuvers; launch vehicle with high accuracy injection orbit, etc. Some operational requirements and constraints for the strategies are briefly discussed. In order to provide acceptable phase angles for possible launch dates the experience of the ISS altitude profile control can be used. As examples of the short phasing strategies, the following rendezvous missions are considered: direct ascent, short mission with the phasing during 3–7 orbits depending on the launch date (nominal or backup). For each option statistical modeling of the rendezvous mission is fulfilled, as well as an admissible phase angle range, accuracy of target state vector and addition fuel consumption coming out of emergency is defined. In this paper an estimation of pros and cons of all options is conducted. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

During the Spring of 1993, at the request of the US President, the Space Station partners, under the leadership of the US National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), undertook a fundamental redesign of the Space Station and the manner by which NASA would manage the program. Coincident with the 1993 redesign, NASA initiated discussions with the Russian Federation with the view to Russia becoming a partner in the Space Station Program. This resulted in the partners (the United States, Canada, Europe and Japan) issuing, on December 6, 1993, an invitation to Russia to enter into negotiations to become a partner in the International Space Station Program.Originally, the negotiations were intended to center exclusively around the changes required to the government and agency-level Space Station Agreements to bring Russia into the partnership, and to reflect the changes resulting from the 1993 redesign. After the commencement of the negotiations it became necessary to also reflect changes due to restructuring of the European and Canadian partners’ programs, and various desires of the partners to confirm in the legal framework new provisions for dealing with cost control and common operations activities.This paper provides a summary of the complex legal and programmatic multinational negotiations that took place between 1993 and 1997 on a multilateral Intergovernmental Agreement and four bilateral space agency-level Memoranda of Understanding.This paper puts these most recent negotiations in the context of the first set of agreements which were signed in September 1988, explains the process the original partners put in place for the 1993–1997 Round of negotiations, and the substantive issues that resulted together with the solutions agreed. The paper captures in one document the most relevant aspects of these important international negotiations, and complements those papers previously presented by the authors at the 45th and 47th Congresses of the International Astronautical Federation.11“Expanding the International Space Station Program Partnership—An International Partner''s Perspective” by Graham Gibbs, Canadian Space Agency, IAA-94-IAA.3.2.638.22“International Negotiations: The International Space Station Agreements” by Lynn F.H. Cline, U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration, IAA-96-IAA.3.1.03. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Russia is a strategic partner for Europe, in particular in its space endeavour. However, in the past decade the Russian partner has significantly changed. Strengthened by a better economic situation, Russia is now reasserting strong ambitions, and its leadership aims to reaffirm the country''s position on the international scene. As a result, Russia''s international partnerships in the space field have evolved and the country has recently intensified relationships with China and India. This development has the potential to strongly impact Europe, its space activities and the relations between all those actors. This paper investigates the relations between Russia, India and China, their possible evolution and the consequences for Europe. It evaluates the potential impact on Europe''s space activities and on its cooperation with the Russian partner. It concludes with recommended actions to be taken by European decision-makers in order to maximise opportunities and minimise risks in this changing environment. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Following the decision taken during the ESA Council in December 2004 to start the “Soyuz at CSG” program funded by seven European countries (Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Spain and Switzerland) and ARIANESPACE, activities began in French Guyana in January 2005 to build a new launch pad for the Russian Soyouz ST launcher, and in the Federation of Russia to build associated ground equipments and to adapt the launcher. This papers recalls the Soyuz launcher definition and its adaptations for a launch from CSG and presents the overall design of the Soyuz Launch pad together with the future launch operations. One and a half year after project kick-off, a status of the development is made and the planning of the remaining activities until the first flight end of 2008 is also given. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: An experimental–computational system, which is developed at the Thermal Laboratory, Department Space Systems Engineering, Moscow Aviation Institute (MAI), is presented for investigating the thermal properties of composite materials by methods of inverse heat transfer problems. The system is aimed at investigating the materials in conditions of unsteady contact and/or radiation heating over a wide range of temperature changes and heating rates in a vacuum, air and inert gas medium. The paper considers the hardware components of the system, including the experiment facility and the automated system of control, measurement, data acquisition and processing, as well as the aspects of methodical support of thermal tests. In the next part the conception and realization of a computer code for experimental data processing to estimate the thermal properties of thermal-insulating materials is given. The most promising direction in further development of methods for non-destructive composite materials using the procedure of solving inverse problems is the simultaneous determination of a combination of their thermal and radiation properties. The general method of iterative regularization is concerned with application to the estimation of materials properties (e.g., example: thermal conductivity and heat capacity ). Such problems are of great practical importance in the study of material properties used as non-destructive surface shield in objects of space engineering, power engineering, etc. In the third part the results of practical implementation of hardware and software presented in the previous two parts are given for the estimating of thermal properties of thermal-insulating materials. The main purpose of this study is to confirm the feasibility and effectiveness of the methods developed and hardware equipment for determining thermal properties of particular modern high porous materials. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Attitude dynamics of the first Russian nanosatellite TNS-0 is considered. The satellite is equipped with an attitude control system comprising a strong permanent magnet mounted along the satellite axis of symmetry and a number of hysteresis rods as a damper. It was expected that the satellite axis of symmetry traces the induction vector of the geomagnetic field. When the satellite has been orbited its angular momentum was unexpectedly high. To interpret motion of the satellite using mathematical study and flight data processing is the purpose of this paper. Three elementary sun sensors are installed on the satellite corp and their measurements analysis shows that the satellite angular velocity was decreasing with a time early in the mission. The analytical study of the motion is carried out. To examine the asymptotical stability of the motion the approximating model of the hysteresis was involved. Finally, the satellite probably reached the following motion: it rotates; the magnet direction precession-averaged follows the induction vector of the geomagnetic field; the angle between the magnet and the induction vector is not rather small and without tendency to be smaller. Actually, the satellite reached a permanent rotation mode almost without energy dissipation. Such a mode was mentioned in the 1960s and now it is explained and recognized in flight. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The realization of Russian–Australian scientific—educational micro-satellite “Kolibri-2000” (weight of 20.5kg, http://www.kolibri2000.ru 20 March, 2002), delivered into an orbit by “Progress M1-7”, was the first item in the Program of Scientific—Educational Micro-Satellite (PSEMS'' 2002–2007, http://iki.cosmos.ru/kollibri/mission1_e.htm) and designate the starting point of a series at perspective scientific—educational micro-satellites (SEMS, http://www.energia.ru/english/energia/sci-education/microsat/microsat-02.html). In the “Kolibri-2000” project, several schools equipped by School Center of Reception of the Information (SCRI), participated, including Russian schools (Obninsk http://ftschool.obninsk.org) and two Australian schools in Sydney, Knox Grammar School (www.knox.nsw.edu.au) and Ravenswood School for Girls (www.ravenswood.nsw.edu.au). The results of the “Kolibri-2000” first measurements on the orbit near the International Space Station will be submitted in this paper which include the ionosphere reaction during the April 2002 events, and address as understanding of the coupling and feedback in the Sun–Earth interaction. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Modern state of development and application of electric propulsion (EP) in Russia is analyzed in this report. The characteristics of fields of advisable EPS application are presented. The power-to-weight and economic effectiveness of applying EP systems of different types for solving perspective tasks, including spacecraft transportation to operating orbits, its station keeping in the orbit and in the structure of satellite constellations, operation and stabilization and taking away from the orbit after the end of the lifetime are studied in this paper. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The development of protective suits for space use started with the Vostok-suit SK-1, first used by Yu. Gagarin on April 12, 1961, and then used on all subsequent Vostok-flights. The technical background for the design of these suits was the work on full pressure protective suits for military pilots and stratospheric flights in the 1930''s through 50''s.The Soviet-Russian space programme contains a large number of ‘firsts’, and one of the most well known is the first EVA by Leonov in 1965. This event is also the starting point for a long series of space suit development for Extravehicular Activities over the last 35 years.The next step to come was the transfer in void space of crew members between the two spacecraft Soyuz 4 and 5 in 1969. As has later become known this was an essential element in the planned Soviet lunar exploration programme, which in itself required a new space suit After the termination of the lunar programme in 1972, the space suit development concentrated on suits applicable to zero-gravity work around the manned space stations Salyut 6, Salyut 7 and MIR. These suits have become known as the ORLAN-family of suits, and an advanced version of this suit (ORLAN-M) will be used on the International Space Station together with the American EMU.This paper covers the space suit development in the Soviet Union in the 1960''s and the experience used from the pre-space era. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Nearly six years after the launch of the first International Space Station element, and four years after its initial occupation, the United States and our 6 international partners have made great strides in operating this impressive Earth orbiting research facility. This past year we have done so in the face of the adversity of operating without the benefit of the Space Shuttle. In his January 14, 2004, speech announcing a new vision for America's space program, President Bush affirmed the United States' commitment to completing construction of the International Space Station by 2010. The President also stated that we would focus our future research aboard the Station on the long-term effects of space travel on human biology. This research will help enable human crews to venture through the vast voids of space for months at a time. In addition, ISS affords a unique opportunity to serve as an engineering test bed for hardware and operations critical to the exploration tasks. NASA looks forward to working with our partners on International Space Station research that will help open up new pathways for future exploration and discovery beyond low Earth orbit. This paper provides an overview of the International Space Station Program focusing on a review of the events of the past year, as well as plans for next year and the future., (Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

The paper addresses the evolution of the Canadian Space Station Program between 1981 and 2003. Discussions with potential international partners, aimed at jointly developing the current International Space Station program, were initiated by NASA in 1982. Canada chose, through the further development of the technologies of Canadarm on the space shuttle, to provide and operate an advanced and comprehensive external robotics system for space station, and to use the space station for scientific and commercial purposes. The program was to become a corner-stone of the new Canadian Space Agency. The development phase of the Canadian Space Station Program has been completed and two of the three major elements are currently operational in space., (c2005 Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

New, innovative joint safety policies and requirements were developed in support of the Shuttle/Mir program, which is the first phase of the International Space Station program. This work has resulted in a joint multinational analysis culminating in joint certification for mission readiness. For these planning and development efforts, each nation's risk programs and individual safety practices had to be integrated into a comprehensive and compatible system that reflects the joint nature of the endeavor. This paper highlights the major incremental steps involved in planning and program integration during development of the Shuttle/Mir program. It traces the transition from early development to operational status and highlights the valuable lessons learned that apply to the International Space Station program (Phase 2). Also examined are external and extraneous factors that affected mission operations and the corresponding solutions to ensure safe and effective Shuttle/Mir missions., (c2003 Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

The Microgravity Research Program (MRP) participated aggressively in Phase 1 of the International Space Station Program using the Russian Mir Space Station. The Mir Station offered an otherwise unavailable opportunity to explore the advantages and challenges of long duration microgravity space research. Payloads with both National Aeronautics and Space Agency (NASA) and commercial backing were included as well as cooperative research with the Canadian Space Agency (CSA). From this experience, much was learned about long-duration on-orbit science utilization and developing new working relationships with our Russian partner to promote efficient planning, operations, and integration to solve complexities associated with a multiple partner program. This paper focuses on the microgravity research conducted onboard the Mir space station. It includes the Program preparation and planning necessary to support this type of cross increment research experience; the payloads which were flown; and summaries of significant microgravity science findings., (Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

There is a belief that exists in the United States about public support for NASA's activities. The belief is almost universally held that NASA and the cause of space exploration enjoyed outstanding public support and confidence in the 1960s during the era of Apollo and that public support waned in the post-Apollo era, only to sink to quite low depths in the decade of the 1990s. These beliefs are predicated on anecdotal evidence that should not be discounted, but empirical evidence gleaned from public opinion polling data suggest that some of these conceptions are totally incorrect and others are either incomplete or more nuanced than previously believed. This paper explores evolution of public support for space exploration since the 1960s. Using polling data from a variety of sources it presents trends over time and offers comments on the meaning of public perceptions for the evolution of space policy and the development of space exploration in the United States., (Published by Elsevier Science Ltd.)

To improve the interpersonal climate of crewmembers involved with long-duration space missions, it is important to understand the factors affecting their interactions with each other and with members of mission control. This paper will present findings from a recently completed NASA-funded study during the Shuttle/Mir program which evaluated in-group/out-group displacement of negative emotions; changes in tension, cohesion, and leader support over time; and cultural differences. In-flight data were collected from 5 astronauts, 8 cosmonauts, and 42 American and 16 Russian mission control personnel who signed informed consent. Subjects completed a weekly questionnaire that assessed their mood and perception of their work group's interpersonal climate using questions from well-known, standardized measures (Profile of Mood States, Group and Work Environment Scales) and a critical incident log. There was strong evidence for the displacement of tension and dysphoric emotions from crewmembers to mission control personnel and from mission control personnel to management. There was a perceived decrease in commander support during the 2nd half of the missions, and for American crewmembers a novelty effect was found on several subscales during the first few months on-orbit. There were a number of differences between American and Russian responses which suggested that the former were less happy with their interpersonal environment than the latter. Mission control personnel reported more tension and dysphoria than crewmembers, although both groups scored better than other work groups on Earth. Nearly all reported critical incidents came from ground subjects, with Americans and Russians showing important differences in response frequencies.

The U.S. Congress has maintained an intense interest in the ISS program since its inception. In the Appropriations Act of 1997, the Senate of the United States included language directing National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) to have the National Research Council (NRC) under take a study that evaluates the engineering challenges posed by extravehicular activity (EVA) requirements, United States and non-United States space launch requirements, the potential need to upgrade or replace equipment and components after Assembly Complete, and the requirement to decommission and disassemble the facility. NASA and the NRC decided the focus should be on the anticipated challenges in the continuous operation and maintenance of the ISS after assembly of the on-orbit facility has been completed. This would encompass the operational years, from late 2004 (if the current schedule holds) to 2020-2025. This executive summary overviews the results of this NRC study. It focuses on the U.S. operation of the ISS after Assembly Complete, including cooperative efforts by the United States and Russia. The paper summarizes the primary findings and recommendations in each of the areas considered during this two-year NRC study., (c2001 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd.)

The paper deals with the construction of physical/chemical life support systems of orbiting space station Mir and the Russian segment of the international space station (ISS). Based on experience gained in development and long-term operation of systems for water recovery and air revitalization balance and energy/mass characteristics of promising life support systems (LSS) are analyzed. Physical/chemical life support systems with regenerative systems updated as a result of the operation on the ISS may be used at an initial phase of manned interplanetary missions., (c 2000 International Astronautical Federation. Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.)

A number of interpersonal issues relevant to manned space missions have been identified from the literature. These include crew tension, cohesion, leadership, language and cultural factors, and displacement. Ground-based studies by others and us have clarified some of the parameters of these issues and have indicated ways in which they could be studied during actual space missions. In this paper, we summarize some of our findings related to social and cultural issues from a NASA-funded study conducted during several Shuttle/Mir space missions. We used standardized mood and group climate measures that were completed on a weekly basis by American and Russian crew and mission control subjects who participated in these missions. Our results indicated that American subjects reported more dissatisfaction with their interpersonal environment than their Russian counterparts, especially American astronauts. Mission control personnel were more dysphoric than crewmembers, but both groups were significantly less dysphoric than other work groups on Earth. Countermeasures based on our findings are discussed which can be applied to future multicultural space missions., (Published by Elsevier Science Ltd.)

Since the first French flight in space in 1982, the CNES has developed a wide range of instruments, especially in the field of Neurosciences. The design of these instruments has considerably evolved from rather simple equipment up to much more sophisticated tools that are being specially tailored for these missions. Four major phases can be identified: -a simple adaptation of an echographe leading to the first neurosciences experiments (the ARAGATZ'88 mission), -the ILLUSIONS and VIMINAL instruments used during the ANTARES'92 and ALTAIR'93 missions, -the COGNILAB instrument developed for the CASSIOPEE'96 mission, to be re-used in 1997 and in 1999, -a preliminary design of the 1999 mission payload, including virtual reality concepts, in a modular design to adapt to the European COF. Aside from the evolution of scientific requirements, the experience gained during the flights led to progressive improvements in the different technical parts, including visual system, body restraint systems, accessories, such as a force feedback joystick, computer and software, etc. This paper describes the technical evolutions in the CNES Neurosciences program.

The Mir-1 and International Space Station Alpha capabilities present the science community with unique long duration platforms to conduct a wide range of scientific research in the microgravity and life sciences as well as in the observational sciences, NASA is developing plans to use the capabilities of Mir and Space Station as they emerge during the development of the orbital program. In both cases the planned science utilization programs take advantage of the volume, crew, power, microgravity and logistics resupply unique to each phase. The paper will present these utilization plans in the context of an evolving scientific program.

A feasibility study in 1992 showed the benefits of a common European Russian space suit development, EVA Suit 2000, replacing the Russian space suit Orlan-DMA and the planned European Hermes EVA space suit at the turn of the century. This EVA Suit 2000 is a joint development initiated by the European Space Agency (ESA) and the Russian Space Agency (RKA). The main objectives of this development program are: first utilization aboard the Russian Space Station MIR-2; performance improvement with respect to current operational suits; development cost reduction. Russian experience gained with the present extravehicular activity (EVA) suit on the MIR Space Station and extensive application of European Technologies will be needed to achieve these ambitious goals. This paper presents the current status of the development activities, the space suit system design and concentrates in more detail on life support aspects. Specific subjects addressed will include the overall life support conceptual architecture, design features, crew comfort and operational considerations.

The paper presents the analysis of the Russian experience gained in the operations of Salyut-6, 7 and Mir orbital stations. The main factors determining their effectiveness and safety are considered and the main requirements to the EVA suit, as the most important tool for the EVA, are formulated.

This paper reviews human data concerning bone loss and attempted countermeasures during spaceflight and bed rest, a commonly employed technique to simulate the effects of weightlessness on the musculoskeletal system.

The experience gained in the USSR allows the following conclusions: physiological responses to EVA do not depend on flight duration in qualitative and quantitative terms. Physiological responses to EVA are mainly determined by following 3 factors: physiological activities; space suit environmental parameters; physiological stress. This paper reviews problems, associated with altitude decompression sickness; thermal regulation of the body, visual function and physiological psychological stress as well as individual EVA experience in physiological responses.