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This article examines Erik Jörgen Hansen's paper concerning Danish educational equalization. He starts by discussing a certain specified goal, social equality in the field of education. He then deals with a number of obstacles which according to him prevent the realization of the desired goal in existing school systems. Finally he proposes certain measures to clear away the obstacles or minimize their importance. The goals discussed by Hansen is social equality in the field of education. What this means to him he discusses at some length and comes out with a number of definitions. One of these, consistent equality, he then tries to operationalize. This means in its general version that equality is reached when the educational system is so constructed, that it for all leads to a result that does not make it possible to find any useful criterion according to which individuals can be singled out in relation to the education obtained. In a more limited way this goal can be said to have been reached if the individuals in various categories, examples are social groups, geographical area, sex and others, on the average, regardless of category, reach a completely identical educational result.

Presents information on the contents of the March 1965 issue of the journal "Acta Sociologica."

This paper starts with a short survey of the literature dealing with the problem of evaluating the performance of a given news medium or news channel as to the transmission of foreign news. Then it goes on to discuss various possibilities of testing hypotheses about the flow and structure of foreign news. A distinction between intra and extra media data is introduced, and finally, the outline of an empirical investigation is presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article presents information about the riots, which broke out after the first performance of the American motion picture "Rock Around the Clock" in Copenhagen, Denmark. During the first performance in the afternoon no incidents occurred, neither at the Bristol nor at the other cinema, the Platan, were the film was also shown. The riots did not begin until after the second evening performance. Another three policemen were ailed in before the end of the performance. As the filmgoers came out of the cinema, some youths made for the Town Hall Square. Some of them walked on toward the main entrance of the Tivoli where they tried to get in without paying. The Tivoli staff at the main entrance called for the police who arrested nine persons. The next day on August 6th, a crowd numbering about three hundred young people gathered outside the Bristol after the first evening performance. After about half an hour the general sentiment of the group began to grow increasingly aggressive. The young people encumbered the street-users, and gradually traffic came to a stop. The crowd was dispersed by the police, and was dosed to through-going traffic. Then the youths set out for the Town Hall Square through the cross streets. The police cleared the square several times during that night. Sixteen persons were apprehended.

This article provides information on a seminar on social change and social structure held in Vuoranta near Helsinki, Finland in November 1976. Eighteen sociologists from Poland and about twenty from Finland participated in the event. It was organized as part of an exchange programme between the Polish Academy of Sciences and the Academy of Finland. The practical arrangements were made by the Research Group for Comparative Sociology at the University of Helsinki. The Polish group was led by professor Wlodzimierz Wesolowski and the Finnish group by professor Erik Allardt. The process of preparing the papers for the seminar was somewhat unusual. The main theme was divided into fourteen separate topics, including class structure and stratification, social mobility, political systems, family, regional development, cultural participation and others. For each topic a Polish and a Finnish participant met before the seminar and agreed on the general content of the paper to be prepared, the idea being to emphasize the comparative nature of the seminar. In one case the respective participants succeeded in writing an integrated paper in which the comparative aspect was central. In general, there seemed not to be great differences in the sociological orientations of the two groups.

This article discusses the problems which arise in the planning and organizing of educational indicator systems. If a person wants to assess the effect of a certain measure, program evaluation can not be substituted by social indicators as usually conceived. Social indicators can not either give much guidance in the day-to-day planning in intermediate levels of the administration. What social indicators can do is to give a kind of gross evaluation of a number of measures usually taken under a period and of unforeseen and unplanned changes as well, to indicate if the development is taking desired directions. A danger of an indicator system of the type closely affiliated to administration is the sectorization and institutional bias likely to manifest itself in concentration on means available to the bureaucracy in question. This is an advantage as to manipulability of means but as disadvantage as to seeing the whole range of alternatives. In a social-indicators-project the ideal would be indicators of knowledge and skills in the whole population, instead of educational indicators aimed primarily at evaluating the institutionalized school system and its effects on the minority of the population affected by it.

ABSTRACT There are three broad explanations for why workers adapt, or fail to adapt, to technological change in the workplace. The adversarial perspective holds that employment security produces resistant workers, and conversely that insecurity assures efficiency in adapting a workforce to technological and organizational changes. Institutionalists argue the opposite, emphasizing that secure workers have little to fear from change. Finally, a neo-corporatist variant sees managers and powerful trade-union leaders as capable of successfully negotiating industrial changes, independently of rank and file preferences. In this paper we explore these explanations via interview data collected from managers and trade unionists (or labour representatives) from Canada and Sweden. Our focus is on three industries – pulp and paper, steel and telecommunications equipment. Analyses deal with specific questions associated with the introduction of new equipment and technology, attempts to introduce organizational restructuring, and experiences with layoffs. We further examine respondents’ comments on obstacles encountered during the change process, including the reactions, conflicts and grievances of the rank and file workers at their plants, mills and factories. On the whole, the results of our interviews with respondents at seventy-three plants in our three-industry two-country comparison seem to contradict the strict adversarial theory. While our data provide some evidence in favour of the institutionalist perspective, the neo-corporatist arguments found the most support. Swedish trade union leaders were viewed by managers, and viewed themselves, as more positively disposed to change than either their Canadian counterparts or workers in either country. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present paper summarizes papers given at the 8th International Family Research Seminar in Oslo, Norway, 1963, which describe and explain differential frequencies of those decisions to marry which result in teenage marriage. Sociological analysis of marriage usually points out that age at marriage varies with the type of society and, therefore, reflects the stage of industrialization and urbanization. The lowest ages at marriage are generally found in peasant agricultural countries, such as India and China. During the rapid growth phase of urban industrial nations, age at marriage apparently rises, but later the age at marriage once again turns downward, though not rapidly. One way of viewing trends of teenage marriage is in terms of the percentage of males and females under 20 years of age involved in marriages contracted. During 1961, in 6% of all marriages contracted in Yugoslavia one or both spouses were under the age of 18. However, in such marriages the wife was under 18 years of age in 91 % of the cases, the husband in only 9 %. From 1953-1961 there was a gradual decrease in the percentage married under 18 years from 6.6 % to 6.0 %.

Introduces various articles and research papers related to sociology that appeared in the 1962 issue of the journal "Acta Sociologica."

The paper pays particular attention to gender- and age-linked differences in forms of indirect, relational and direct, physical forms of delinquent aggression, as well as to sequential links of these forms of delinquent aggression to depression and drug and alcohol abuse. A power-control theory of the gender-delinquency relationship that draws attention to differences in familial control practices is then linked to these variations in the expression of delinquency and despair. We extend the focus of power-control theory to address how parental agency and support for dominant attitudes or schemas influence involvement in different forms of delinquency and despair. This extension emphasizes that differences in structure, particularly between more and less patriarchal households, result in degrees of difference and of kind in non-normative outcomes. The paper concludes with a call for increased diversity in the measurement of delinquency and despair and for the development of opposite-sex sibling samples to explore gender- and age-linked differences in non-normative phenomena. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Professional structure and its relations to certain social fields is an underdeveloped topic of research. A common understatement is that new eras require new professions, that is, when fields change the professional structure also changes. In some cases, the statement might be correct, but this common-sense understanding has little theoretical or empirical support. It ignores the fact that professional structures sometimes actually remain unchanged for long periods, even though the related fields have developed, or vice versa. Nor does it take into account that the knowledge base of the professions can be modified to suit new requirements. Moreover, it seems to underestimate the opportunities for professions to take part actively in field definition. In this paper, a conceptual framework is proposed to enable an analysis of professional structures and their relations to social fields. The professional structure is defined as the composition of professional groups and the power relations between them. The social field is defined as an institutionalized power area comprising actors and institutions struggling for influence. Swedish urban planning offers an excellent case for illustrating the theoretical and methodological findings in the paper. It is concluded that the field of urban planning has changed in some respects, but not fundamentally. The professional structure, on the other hand, has shifted dramatically. The variation in jurisdictional claims and influence can explain why the structure has developed in the ways it has. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The introductory chapter by Rokkan and Lipset in Party Systems and Voter Alignments (1967) and the further development of Rokkan's work in Citizens, Elections, Parties (1970) provide points of departure for a discussion of the impact of Parsonian AGIL theory on Rokkan's political sociology. The AGIL theory would seem to have provided initial inspiration for Rokkan's own thinking rather than premises for strict hypothetico-deductive reasoning closely related to the Parsonian theoretical framework. The present paper, however, attempts to deductively explore certain hidden implications of the AGIL dynamic, thus arriving at notions of structural contradictions similar to those found among some structural Marxists. These notions are then related back to Rokkan's theory of sequential historical junctures and conflicts, the conclusion being that his theory can and must be further developed to take account of the internal contradictions emerging in mature capitalism not only according to Marxists but also according to the hidden implications of AGIL theory explicated in this paper. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper is concerned with methods of partitioning observed rates of occupational status change into the circulation and structural-effects components. Two older methods are reviewed and their inadequacies are described briefly. Then a new method based on simultaneous proportional adjustments of matrix cell frequencies is presented. Three analytic models of status change are constructed by this proportional-adjustment method; the utility of one model - a model of constant occupational structure - is illustrated extensively through applications to hypothetical data and to data from Italy and the USA. The paper concludes with some tentative formulations concerning the location of indirect structural repercussions in a partitioned transition matrix. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines the economic, social and political forces determining the concrete amount of education needed by all people. In his paper Torsten Husén states that in estimating the degree to which people can be educated, people are primarily dealing with a socio-politico-economic problem rather than a pedagogic one. Perhaps the main problem raised by Husén's paper is not whether the existing empirical information support a reactionary or progressive educational pattern, but the significance of empirical findings as such. The large research work done by Husén shows, by large, that the arguments put forward against the educability of people and in favor of selective or restrictive pattern of education are not, pedagogically, valid. On the other hand, it is certain that once a progressive educational policy is formed at the political level, the implementation of it need research directed to these specific ends. There are some principal tendencies in a class society to repeat the existing division of work and modes of manpower utilization by limiting of education of some demographic groups and differentiating mechanically the knowledge transmitted to people.

Recent publication of a seminal paper analyzing variation in upward and downward mobility rates should alert social scientists to the possibilities for quantitative research in this intricate field. Like most trail-blazing papers, the analysis is subject to evaluation and a critical analysis at this point may stimulate further profitable research. The comments on the cover five problems. Although it is said that the upward and downward mobility rates used in the paper now under discussion classify farmers as manual workers, this rule is not easily followed. The top panel groups those nations in which the original data, reported farm sons and fathers separately from urban workers. Four studies did not separate farm from urban workers, but placed farmers in a low prestige category. It was decided to use all available nations by including farmers and grouping them with non farm workers. However it is difficult to use the same data and compute mobility rates identical to those obtained especially broken out in the original data. The efforts to reconstruct the identical data resulted in six different upward and six different downward rates.

The article presents information related to the characteristics of the behavior of agents of law both administrative and judicial who in their work interact directly with members of the community. It is a basic assumption in this paper that agents of sanction exist in all relatively permanent social systems. These agents may either act as privates or a formal organization or not; some may act individually as interacting directly with ordinary members of the social system, either this is an entire community, an association, an industrial organization or a small, informal group. One shall be dealing with the behavior of these agents, bringing into focus the official behavior, which is part of the face-to face interaction between the agents and the other members of the social system concerned. Another basic assumption of the paper is that face-to face disapproving behavior of agents in all social systems have interesting common traits, which with profit may be analyzed comparatively by means of a fairly general theory of sanction behavior. Initially it is an open question whether such a theory can be considered identical to or deduced from a general theory of action.

This is a preliminary report from a study of occupational mobility in the United States. Objectives of the study are to describe patterns of social mobility in some detail, to estimate the influence of various factors on occupational life chances and to ascertain a few consequences of socio-economic status and mobility, such as their implications for fertility. The present paper reports selected findings pertaining to factors affecting occupational achievement and chances to move away from one's social origins. In particular, researchers examine the significance for occupational attainment of education, ethnic background, community size, migration and parental family. In addition to presenting preliminary substantive findings from this research, this paper also provides an opportunity for illustrating the analytical procedures that have been used. The analysis relies to a large extent on the regression approach. Two major advantages of this approach which prompted this decision to adopt it are that it is a very efficient method of large scale data reduction and that it permits, consequently, the simultaneous examination of interrelations of fairly large numbers of variables, especially if computers are used. Contingency tables containing half a dozen or more variables and many hundreds of cells are too complex to be analyzed by inspection, whereas the regression method permits the analysis of these interrelations.

This article discusses changing patterns of rural organization. There are many different approaches possible for a summary of a congress. The first design which will be used is to study a general hypothesis based on the sociologist R.K. Merton's comparison between European and American research technique in the sociology of knowledge. It seems as if one of the most important tasks in science is to study repeatedly the reliability and the validity of the empirical findings, in order to construct a coherent theoretical building. This means that the same hypothesis has to be tested several times at different places and at different points of time. It might be a very stimulating task for the European Society for Rural Sociology to further such a cumulative work. There has not either been very much discussion of how to study the consequences of a change. Especially the nonintended consequences are of great interest for a rural sociologist and have great practical importance. A final aspect in connection with change is the study of social processes. The necessity of analyzing the socio-cultural linkage has already been emphasized.

Re-interpreting Simmel's work on money as an attempt to develop a critical sociology of consumption from a relativist theory of value, this paper illustrates the extent to which it may be seen as something more, and different than, sociological impressionism. The modern social space of valuation is chiefly defined by the development of money economy within metropolitan settings. This allows for the public commensurability of values and pushes for their private incompatibility. Subjectivism is heightened in so far as individuals' capacity to sustain difference is vital to social, objective exchange. Contrary to neo-classical economics, the appreciation of individual choice entails for Simmel a critical appraisal of the social conditions of its existence which results in a discussion of the risks associated with the pressure to perform as autonomous choosers. The paper concludes with a view on what may be a Simmelian sociology of consumption, one which enriches the classical focus on social distinction with a critical concern for the modern conditions of valuation and self-constitution. Fashion and style may be conceived of as techniques of consumption that, embodying particular combinations of difference and indifference, help govern the modern world of goods. In this view, these mundane practices have the potential to function as a balancing practice of self-constitution, taking place between the indifference of the market which allows individualization, and the risk that the individuality thus constituted remains empty, a reproducer of commensurability unable to bestow value on things. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

From the work of Weber onwards charisma has been primarily explained in terms of its relationship to underlying social structural and psychological environments. The paper redresses this imbalance and examines the cultural structures that operate as preconditions for the attribution of charisma to political and religious leaders. Drawing on Weberian, Durkheimian and semiotic theory the paper argues that charisma arises in conjunction with salvation narratives. The internal structure of these narratives requires binary oppositions contrasting good and evil. The model is exemplified with reference to case studies of Hitler, Churchill and Martin Luther King. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Talking to teachers is an important part of home-school relationships, and yet research into parental involvement rarely includes an analysis of home-school interaction. Drawing on a UK study of mothers' involvement in their children's primary schooling, this paper uses Bourdieu's concepts of linguistic and cultural capitals to explore the differences in both how mothers approach teaching staff and how they perceive the contact they have with their children's teachers. The paper examines some of the ways in which maternal involvement is mediated by power relations between mothers and teachers, and draws on empirical data, which suggest that social class positioning has a powerful influence on mothers' ability to get what they want for their children. Cultural capital, including linguistic capital, personal histories and mothers' own educational experiences all contribute to mothers' sense of efficacy in relation to home-school interaction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There are two main strategies to elicit effort from employees: control and incentives. The issue addressed in this paper is how systems of control and incentives are related, and how they are embedded in the organizational structure. The analyses are based on data from a national survey of Swedish public and private sector organizations. According to the findings, the degree of bureaucratization is not only positively related to the extent to which employees are controlled, but also to the level of incentives. The results also indicate that employers using selective incentives rely on monitoring and output control in order to establish who will get ahead and why. Furthermore, some results show that the control level is relatively low in organizations which use general rather than selective incentives. Hence, the idea that incentives and control are functional equivalents appears to be invalid for selective incentives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Utilizing the 'Metropolitan' database, which provides unique longitudinal data on a cohort of 15,000 individuals born in Stockholm in 1953, the paper tests various hypotheses on how conditions in childhood and social upbringing influence sickness absence in adulthood. The hypotheses were derived from different perspectives within the social sciences. The findings suggest that the effects of social background are transmitted via several mechanisms, and that it is useful to see some of the competing hypotheses on social class and health-related phenomena as complementary rather than contradictory. However, the results also suggest that both 'the culture of poverty hypothesis' and the 'biological imprint hypothesis' should be rejected. Because effects of social background are mediated by career variables such as school performance, educational level and current socio-economic status, the results support the 'unfavourable life career hypothesis'. In addition to these effects, an influence of being brought up in a family with serious domestic problems is found. This is congruent with 'the social imprint hypothesis', that childhood conditions may have lasting effects on conditions and behaviours in adult life, irrespective of later exposure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper surveys recruitment changes in Norwegian education from the 1960s to 1990. The impact of educational background did not diminish during the period. However, that of occupational class receded. The earlier conclusion from several Western countries, that educational equalization stopped after 1960, therefore, does not apply to Norway. However, the particularly large expansion in higher education after 1990 produced an equalization setback. Educational careers in this paper were studied on the basis of a 6 per cent sample of the population born 1954 to 1970. Background data from the 1970 and 1980 censuses were matched with attainment data from the NOS' Educational Registry Data (based upon the annual reports from individual schools). Educational attainment until age 27 was studied for the cohorts born 1954-55 and 1964-65. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper I discuss ways in which gender relations -- that is relations of inequality between women and men -- may change in aging societies where life expectations are high, fertility low, and where old people constitute a high proportion of the population. The central argument is that the aging society will provide opportunities to develop more egalitarian relations between women and men both in the public and private sphere. Such opportunities will only be realized if the link between gender and the care of children is severed. This is most likely to occur if women's position in the labor market is improved. It is argued that the aging society may indeed have a high demand for women's labor which makes such a development likely. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper discusses the phenomenon of genderized technology. A model of genderized technology is outlined, identifying mechanisms of genderization at three levels: institutional, symbolic, and characteristics of research work. Using survey material from Norwegian engineering students, it is shown that technology is genderized through all three sets of mechanisms. Although an increasing number of women study engineering, there is an emerging gender division in the choice of field and speciality. The paper argues that this division partly is related to the phenomenon of gender-typing of artefacts. Students perceive some artefacts as 'masculine', others as 'feminine' or 'neutral'. This symbolic aspect of technology is produced by the appearance of the artefact and the sex of the stereotypical user. Finally, the paper explores students' views on ideal characteristics of technological researchers. It is found that 'female' characteristics are valued more than masculine, and that the difference between male and female students in this respect is very small. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper studies the debate about the Scandinavian welfare states from a feminist perspective, focusing on the differences between a feminist perspective and the dominant liberal and critical Marxist understanding of the welfare state, in particular it focuses on the argument that the Scandinavian welfare states are the most advanced in relation to women and discusses both the potentialities and dangers in the Scandinavian welfare states in relation to women. Feminists have pointed out that the concept of gender has been disregarded from a theoretical and methodological point of view in both liberal and Marxist analyses of the welfare state. The fundamental concepts have been either the individual or the class, and the determining forces of the development of the welfare state have been found in the political sphere or in the economy or in the interrelation between the two spheres. The paper points to the need to integrate gender relations in the theoretical model for an analysis of the welfare state and emphasizes the need to explore the relationship between the family and the state (and the family and the economy) in the different welfare states. The paper emphasizes that the qualitative differences in the organization of care work are important for understanding the institutional differences between the welfare states, and especially the Scandinavian welfare states, where motherhood and care work has today become a part of social citizenship. The author argues that even though women have in important ways become empowered in the Scandinavian welfare states as mothers, workers and citizens, they have at the same time become subsumed under a new kind of male domination in the public sphere. A further exploration of this new kind of male domination must transcend the theoretical framework of both Marxism and liberalism and must begin to rethink such central concepts as citizenship, power and interests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Finland the proportion of women in university posts has ceased to grow during the 1980s whereas their numbers as doctorate recipients still show an increasing trend. University career opportunities for women are affected by the decreased growth rates of university institutions occasioning harder competition for the few positions that become vacant. Other factors having an effect on women's opportunities for university careers, including career and family role incompatibility and mechanisms of invisible discrimination, are also scrutinized in the paper. Family role has many facets for the woman. The family is a liability, but also a resource for the woman. The higher productivity rates of married researchers, both women and men, and data on time-use indicate that, as such, family responsibilities are not incompatible with a research and university career. The notion of incompatibility draws attention away from other factors that impede women's careers in science and scholarly work. These include discriminatory practices and attitudes towards women researchers. The paper analyses them within the framework of women representing a symbolic minority in science. Examples are supplied by data of solicited letters from women scientists. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Taking as its starting point what has become known as the British labour process debate, this paper discusses some of the developing ideas within what the author characterizes as its third wave. In particular it focuses on the question of alternatives to Taylorism and the concept of skill. Rather than assuming the dominance of Taylorism (or superiority of flexible forms of organization), it is more useful to start from an appreciation of the limits of and contradictions within scientific management. A central problem which has bedevilled the post-Braverman debate about both new forms of work organization and the concept of skill is the centrality accorded to a unidimensional concept of control. The paper points to the need to get away from this and for a broader discussion of skill which includes consideration of the 'social construction of skill', tacit knowledge, and the sexual division of labour. The author links this discussion to the question of 'new' technologies, showing for example that the notion of tacit skills cautions against assuming they deskill most jobs, because such existing skill may be vital for their successful implementation. An examination of both the effects of recession on work organization and Japanese management further highlights some of the issues raised by the third wave of labour process debate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper is another pragmatic attempt to include women in the comparative study of intergenerational class mobility in France and Sweden, two societies that differ in their political history and in the prevalence of women's activity outside the home. In the main, it addresses two questions: How do the mobility patterns of women via marriage compare with those of men via occupational career? How do the mobility patterns of women via marriage compare with those of women via occupational career? These questions are treated in terms of actually observed life chances as well as in relative terms, which shows the impact of the division of labour by sex on differences in life chances by alternative channels of mobility. An attempt is also made to assess the relative importance of interactions between women's social origin, own occupation, and class position by marriage. The association between the latter two proves to be the strongest by far. Rather unexpectedly, social origin does not appear to affect the association between husband's class and wife's occupational category either in France or in Sweden. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper the emergence of Cultural Studies is traced and its current place in British intellectual life assessed. Throughout a comparison is drawn between Cultural Studies and British Sociology. In the first part of the paper the 'original curriculum' of Cultural Studies is analysed in its making of a sharp break from previous disciplinary practices. The foundation of Cultural Studies on theoretically defined grounds is then described. In the second part of the paper the changes in Cultural Studies since its inception are described and the current critical potential of the practice assessed, On a pessimistic note the paper ends by noting the threat to the survival of Cultural Studies from the current round of rationalizations of British Higher Education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper challenges the belief that economic reality is perceived and economic policy formulated solely on the basis of the state of the economy and the trends within it. Taken into account are the characteristics of the social institutions responsible for following economic development and for taking measures to control the economy themselves or through their authorized recommendations to other institutions within the social system. The institutional and historical material used in this paper covers the four major Nordic countries. The discussion focuses on the status of the central banks, especially their relation to government and parliament, and concludes (1) that central bank status varies greatly between the Nordic countries, and (2) that the autonomous status of the central bank appears to correlate with monetarist features of economic policy. Central banks have less autonomy in the more 'Keynesian' Scandinavian countries, Sweden and Norway, where Keynesianism is often connected with strong and long-term social democratic rule. The genesis of the structural status of the different central banks cannot be explained by the strength of social democracy. Present differences in the structural status of the Scandinavian central banks existed as early as the nineteenth century, long before social democracy began to play a role in the government policy of any Scandinavian country or before the birth of Keynesianism as an economic doctrine. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The term 'social fluidity' is to be understood as intergenerational occupational mobility net of direct structural effects, i.e. effects of differences in the marginal distributions of the mobility tables. Though not entirely adequate in the case of women, the terminology of earlier studies of class mobility is retained to simplify the task at hand, namely to complement the picture of the stratification process in the occupational system obtained from intergenerational mobility data regarding men. In this paper, log-linear models are used to test possible outcomes to the questions: Do men and women in the same nation have the same pattern of social fluidity? Do women/or men have the same pattern of social fluidity cross-nationally? Is the relation of women's to men's patterns of social fluidity the same cross-nationally? On the basis of data from France and Sweden the first two questions are answered in the negative, though one may be impressed by how small differences are and how important structurally induced variation is. The last question may well be answered affirmatively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper is part of an extensive one-man project (Social Trends and Movements in Post-war Sweden) exploring structural changes, and relating them to trends and social movements and seeing the development both as a result of naturalistic forces and as a human drama of conscious movements. It is also a personal document from an industrial sociologist with socialist visions, who started research far back in the 40's. It is a shortened and revised version of the original paper presented in a preliminary version at the Polish-Swedish Seminar on Sociology of Work and Social Policy in Warsaw (October 1976), and later introduced at a seminar on Participation, Workers Control, Self Management, Self Government in Dubrovnik, February 1977. The original analyses the structural and political changes in Sweden as a background for understanding changes in industrial relations and is available as a mimeographed research report from the sociological department of Gothenburg. Some of the references in the original paper have been omitted in this shortened version. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The development of social science research policies reflects an increased emphasis upon government and political control of the research, while at the same time researchers are confronted with stronger restrictions regarding their access to and utilization of certain types of data. The paper gives a review of proposed legislation concerning data systems and the protection of privacy in Norway. According to the proposal a new agency, the Data Inspection, will be given the authority to decide whether or not to permit the establishment of personal data systems to be used by agencies of state or municipality. The provisons of the proposed act will apply even to data systems for research purposes. The paper gives a consideration of a number of intended as well as presumably unintended consequences of such legislation. It is stressed that social scientists fully endorse efforts to build a protective shield around the integrity and privacy of individuals who furnish data for research. However, such efforts should not be allowed to introduce serious obstacles to the search for improved knowledge about social processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The "control-graph" is a method for analyzing the distribution of influence in organizations, which has been developed by A.S. Tannenbaum. The technique has certain methodological assumptions and it is shown that these are not valid in the data, which are analysed in this paper. The aim is to discuss the methodological, but not the theoretical problems of the control-graph, and the paper indicates that the results of previous control graph studies are brought into doubt. Some of the results of the investigation point to the fact that power in organizations has more dimensions and must therefore be taken as too ambiguous when operationalized as in the control graph. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper is an outcome of a project that started with exploring theories of development in advanced societies, especially those of functionalism and Marxism, and then moved on to consider the role of knowledge development in the process of societal change. This shift is connected with the presumption of critical humanism. Critical humanism maintains that social inquiry and social theories should also reflect on the social-structural context and context of application-praxis, should relate to the self-reflection and social consciousness of people, and should be oriented towards problems of social transcendence and social emancipation. History is seen as a dialectic process where social conditions create man and man creates history from given conditions. The development of social knowledge and social consciousness plays an important role in this process. The explication of social emancipation should take its point of departure in human conditions in human needs and the exploration of emancipatory means, goals and transcendence should be part of an increasing self-consciousness of society and people. The functionalistic theories of evolution and modernization appear as naturalistic and deterministic notions from the point of view of critical humanism.

This paper studies the relationship between the sex role pattern and the values of the academic world. To what extent do women acquire the values of the academic world? What consequences wilt a possible adjustment have for the female students academic behaviour and for their intellectual development? Is the conflicts between the "female culture" and the values of the academic world greatest in the academic fields with the largest domination of males? The data to illustrate these questions is based on a questionnaire to 3,100 students ut the University of Oslo, in the spring 1971. I have compared values, attitudes and intellectual development of male and female students in eight different fields of study. The main result Of this investigation points to the importance of organizational support for the "female culture", both when the participation of women is concerned, and for their intellectual development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nco evolutionary theories of functional thinking presume a naturalistic conception of history while this paper takes as its domain assumption an activistic humanistic point of view. If the functionalistic evolutionary theories of social growth, of social differentiation and integration and of developmental viability are given futuristic interpretations for advanced societies, there seems to be lacking evidence for their validity and they seem to be partly detrimental to the realization of welfare goals on a global level. Other functionalistic theories are implicitly based on evaluative criteria in an ambiguous way e.g. in terms of freedom, democracy, equality or rationality. Developmental analyses of advanced countries would profit from an integration with welfare theory and policy science where developmental direction is more clearly related to welfare goals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A theory is formulated with which to analyze transactions in social relationships. Economic types of exchange characterized by calculation and self-interest on the part of the actors are contrasted with more "social" forms of transaction such as occur in the cases of role relationships with interlocking rights and obligations and persons strongly attached to one another. The social factors and conditions determining the types of transaction likely to occur between actors are examined in the paper. The key idea in this respect is that the structural and temporal context of interaction, including the past and anticipated character of their relationship, affects actors' orientations toward one another, their preferences, decisions and interaction patterns. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Causal structures involving a dynamic relation with time lags present difficulties if approached with conventional multivariate cross-sectional techniques. It is shown that customary tests for causal structure, e. g. partial correlations, break down or yield ambiguous results. Some further implications of lagged structure, and an extension of the idea to variability in space, are discussed in the paper. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper studies a pattern of thought, sometimes called "the practical syllogism". The first premise of this pattern is a statement about an agent's intention to achieve a certain result. The second premise is a statement about what he considers necessary for him to do in order to achieve this aim. The conclusion is a statement to the effect, roughly speaking, that the agent proceeds to do the necessary things. What is the logical status of this type of argument or inference? The paper purports to show that the argument, when it is logically conclusive, is a schema of understanding behaviour in the light of assumed intentions and cognitive attitudes of an agent The argument also has uses for explanatory and predictive purposes. The author contends that, as a schema of explanation, the practical inference pattern holds a position in the human and social sciences similar to that of the deductive-nomological inference pattern ("the covering law model") in the natural sciences. Since the patterns are of different logical type, there is thus also a difference in kind between explanation in the natural sciences and in the sciences of man. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two experiments were designed and performed to test an explanatory conjecture stated in an earlier paper. The conjecture says that dissonance (or cognitive imbalance) will occur among overrewarded participants in groups if, and only if, the overrewarded person is receiving or expects to receive indications of disapproval concerning how rewards are distributed in the group from an authority figure or an equitably rewarded group member. The experiments reported here used a modified Berger situation. The results tend to disconfinn the conjecture as stated. Various explanations of the negative results are discussed. Some further theoretical arguments concerning the nature and consequences of inequity are presented. In spite of much experimental and other research, we do not possess much more trustworthy (replicable) information about equity processes than Homans did when he wrote Social Behavior: Its Elementary Forms. Some reasons for the empirical impasse are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper is a broad attempt at a multi-level conceptualization of social change. It proceeds by taking a concrete research problem (the relationship between industrialization and the response of labor) and following it through successive stages of conceptualization, model-building, and the construction of an integrated structure for operationalization. The purpose of the paper is thus twofold; specifically, it presents a theory, model and data-gathering approach for the concrete problem at hand and, generally, it outlines possible theoretical and causal links among three distinct levels of social phenomena. It begins by depicting selected concepts from five different theorists in a conglomerate model which shows posited conceptual links within a causal range. It then proceeds to build up a multi-level framework around the three levels of ecological aggregate, organizational structure, and the individual actor. The theoretical nature of human ecology is presented as especially appropriate for analysis of change variables and the relationship of organizational structure to the ecological base is defined. The communal unit is defended as a contextual base and the individual is related theoretically to both this base and the level of emergent structure. A more complete categorization of contextual and backround variables is then added to that of the existing literature, and the nature of these variables is made more precise in terms of the multi-level structure. Finally an attempt is made to integrate, in a determinate fashion, the three "incommensurate" levels. This is done by relying on principles from ecological psychology whereby the concepts organism-environment, inside-outside, and thing-medium are used to postulate possibilities for cross-level causality. The end product is a multi-level, ecologically-based data structure for the analysis of dynamic social variables. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present paper outlines some rough suggestions for a possible Nordic computer-based information system for storing, processing and delivering the output of theoretical and empirical research on human communication that is being carried out within scientific and applied contexts first and foremost in the Nordic region. Such a system may contribute towards an integrated body of knowledge of human communication systems. The suggested areas covered and some gross dimensions of a possible reference frame for the organization of information are indicated, and user relations and requests are commented upon. It is advocated that both processed empirical data and theoretical propositions be handled by the proposed information system (called CRISS for short), and reasons for the need of it being partly computerized are given. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper deals with a hypothetico-deductive model regarding the "self". The model consists of 12 circular propositions, involving the variates of (1) phenomenal field, (2) situational symbol, (3) balance, and (4) conformity. The self organizes a "phenomenal field" under a "situational symbol", and his "balance ' depends on the extent he experiences a disturbance in the phenomenal field. The performance of the situational symbol is "con"fruity'. The propositions are then examined in the light of available empirical data. By and large, there are good supporting data, and this model may be useful for further empirical studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article focuses on a social research dealing with the changing institutional setting and social problems of the Israeli education. This paper has two aspects. One, its major one, will be an analysis of the development of educational system in the Jewish community in Palestine and later in the State of Israel, of changes in its organizations, social functions and problems. These changes will be related to broader social changes and development which have taken place in the social structure of this country. While these developments and problems have of necessity been specific to this country yet in some ways the general trends of their development can be compared to some parallel ones in other countries. Researchers shall attempt, at the end of the paper, briefly to draw some broader comparative indication. The focus of the concrete analysis will be the way in which the three major social spheres which constitute the "social arena" of education, family and youth culture and their interrelationships developed in the different periods of the development of the Yishuv.

In the following paper certain fads and tendencies in the field of university education in Sweden will be reviewed and some original findings reported, which all seem to have a bearing on the social role of universities in modern society. In one respect the situation in Sweden is by no means unusual though it raises important questions. Measured by student enrollment or similar statistics, universities are currently growing at a rate which has no earlier parallels. Another feature is less common and therefore deserves particular attention. There is relatively little selection between the senior secondary school stage and the university stage, a large proportion of those who graduate from the former proceed to a university or a professional school of equivalent status. There is selection social and intellectual at an earlier stage; the transition from the junior secondary school, or the new comprehensive school, to the gymnasium. In the earlier part of the paper statistical and other information will be offered which is national and overall in coverage, that is to say, describes the system as a whole or major branches of it. The later part will be based on a more intensive study of a panel of students in Lund, Canada who have been interviewed or approached by a questionnaire and followed through their first university years.

This article focuses on one of the most pressing problems in present-day society, legal deviation, a term which is used here to include both delinquency and criminality. A considerable amount of research has been devoted to the causes of legal deviation, and several conclusions have been rather firmly established. Yet there is much to be done. By pointing to one possible approach in this paper, the author hopes to contribute to the solution of two problems in the study of delinquency and crime: first, the assessment of the relative effects of different causal factors, and second, the use of research findings for predictive purposes, e.g. to predict the effect on legal deviation of a specific welfare program. It is not claimed that this approach is in any sense the best one or even that it is a good one, but it is claimed that it is a feasible approach and that it may serve as a starting point for further efforts to achieve better explanations of legal deviation. The discussion in this paper is limited to first-time deviants. The inclusion of repeaters would only complicate the expressions, which seems unnecessary in a first exposition of a model. But the model could easily be amended to take repeaters into account.