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Abstract Background Crop diversification is the potential for greater dietary diversity, and reduced micronutrient deficiencies and malnutrition. Despite the increasing global concern of improving food security, the nature and extent of food security at the household level in rural areas are not well-documented. This paper determines the factors that influence crop diversification and its association with food security which helps policy maker to take proper steps in norther part of Bangladesh. Methods The effect of crop diversification on household food security in northern Bangladesh was measured by adopting the Herfindahl index (HI). Food Consumption Score (FCS) and Household Food Insecurity Access Score (HFIAS) were used to determine the food security status. The binary logistic regression model and multinominal logit model were performed to identify the factors influencing crop diversification and food security, respectively. All these analyses were performed based on 609 household samples collected from six northern districts of Bangladesh. Results Descriptive statistics show that the majority of farmers in the study districts reported 12–13 different crops, while only farmers in Bogura mentioned 19 different crops grown in their field. After calculating crop diversification using HI index, it is apparent that about 64% respondents irrespective of region produced different types of crops and around one third of them possessed in the middle categories neither they were fully crop diversified nor non crop-diversified. About 40% households had better Food Consumption Score lead to only 3.28% belonged to below poverty line and rest of the household fall in borderline. The analysis confirm that the crop diversified households were found to be more food secured or marginal food secured then that of less crop diversified households. Conclusion and policy recommendation We may infer from the factor analysis that, in line with the government policy to raise significantly the standard of living of the farmers, government should facilitate and encourage farmers to grow several crops rather than just one and provide training opportunities. In addition, food insecure people as well as the low food secure group might overcome their circumstances if the government places greater emphasis on education, training, and off-farm activities by providing financial support.

Abstract Background Food insecurity and malnutrition are persistent challenges worldwide and Lesotho is not an exception. Hunger and poverty have worsened with the dawn of COVID-19 pandemic and on-going Russia–Ukraine war. The study seeks to assess food security and associated socio-economic factors among farming households in Lesotho. Household food security has been assessed using Household Food Access Scale (HFIAS) and Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS). Questionnaires were employed to collect data from 236 farming households. Results The HFIAS results show that 40% of the farming households were food secure, 18% were mildly food insecure, 32% were moderately food insecure and 10% were severely food secure and severe food insecurity mostly experienced in the highlands. HDDS results indicated that the farming households had consumed 8 to 12 food groups 7 days prior to data collection, the mean HDDS is 9.68. Households that are involved in commercial farming had more (9.98) diverse diets than those in subsistence farming (8.67). Households in the highlands have the lowest diet diversity (9.0) among the four agro-ecological zones. A logistic regression analysis indicated that the socio-economic factors associated with food security were household income, household size, marital status and education status of the respondent. Conclusions The findings depict that over half (60%) of the farming households experience varied degrees of food insecurity. Contrary to this, the farming households had consumed highly varied diets in the past 7 days. The socio-economic factors that influence the attainment of food security household food security were household size, household income, education and marital status. The findings suggest that agricultural development interventions must be more sensitive to household food security and nutrition, which includes training farmers on nutrition and food security issues. Furthermore, socio-economic factors must be considered in the development of interventions, since they influence the food security of the farming households.

Abstract Background Women empowerment and food security are supposed to be two mutually reinforcing goals of the 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda of the United Nations. However, the measurement of women’s empowerment and its relationship with household food security in the agricultural context is too limited, especially in Ethiopia. The main objective of this study is to examine the effect of women’s empowerment in agriculture on household food security in the Gamo zone of Ethiopia. Methods Cross-sectional data were collected from 385 dual-adult households, selected through a multistage random sampling procedure from two districts—Chencha and Kucha of Gamo zone in Ethiopia. The data were collected on the sample households’ demographic, socioeconomic, women empowerment, food consumption and livelihood activities—crop production, livestock holding and off-farm participation by interviewing both primary male and female decision-makers from each household. Household food security was measured using Calorie Availability, Household Food Consumption and Dietary Diversity Score, while women’s empowerment in agriculture was measured using the Abbreviated Women Empowerment in Agriculture Index. Ordinary Least Square, Two-Stage Least Square, Poisson and Instrumental Variable Poisson regression were used as analytical models. Results Our study shows that increases in women’s empowerment are positively and significantly associated with all food security indicators—adult equivalent calorie availability, household-level food consumption and dietary diversity. The result also shows that food security is positively related to the proportion of adult household members, age and education of primary female, landholding size, crop diversification, food crop production, the number of dairy cows owned and off-farm participation. However, food security is negatively related to household size. Conclusion The implication of the finding is that stakeholders should give due attention to promoting women’s empowerment and eliminating the gender gap in agriculture through appropriate gender mainstreaming intervention in dual-adult households. Food security programmes could also gain from prioritizing female education and promoting agricultural diversification (crop and livestock) and off-farm income diversification strategies as valuable investments to improve household food security. This study is the first application of the Abbreviated Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index in Ethiopia as a predictor to household food security, and contributes to the women’s empowerment–household food security nexus literature in developing countries.

Abstract Background In Uganda, agriculture is the main pathway for dietary intake among the households. Karamoja sub-region, located in Northeastern part of Uganda is the most food insecure in the country. Although agriculture contributes greatly to Uganda’s food systems, there is inadequate evidence for household energy and nutrient intake from agricultural production in the sub-region. Karamoja sub-region is typical because crop production has increasingly become part of the agricultural system in a largely semi-arid environment, predominantly occupied in pastoralism. Therefore, a cross-sectional study of 520 participants investigated the contribution of household’s own agricultural production to dietary intake, seeking to answer whether or not own agricultural production translates into adequate energy and nutrient intake. Results Own food production did not meet energy and nutrient requirements, contributed disproportionately among the districts to household cumulated annual RDAs. This was reflected in the higher proportion of households in Moroto not attaining the cumulative annual RDA (energy: 100.0; protein 100.0; iron 86.5; and zinc 100.0%) than in Abim (energy: 81.6; protein 53.3; iron 23.7; and zinc 59.9%). Overall in Karamoja sub-region, the total energy and nutrients required by the household and supplied from their agricultural production were 15,589.7 ± 10,230.6 and 4226.0 ± 3980.1 kcal/day for energy, 317.6 ± 202.6 and 154.4 ± 153.7 g/day for proteins, 49.5 ± 30.8 and 50.2 ± 47.6 mg/day for iron, and 52.7 ± 32.6 and 25.4 ± 24.5 mg/day for zinc. Inter-household distribution of the absolute difference between energy and selected nutrients required by the household and that derived from own agricultural production showed deficits in household energy and nutrients needs. Further, polygamy, subsistence farming by spouse, lack of formal education by spouse positively predicted energy and nutrient supplied from own agricultural produce while lack of formal education negatively predicted energy nutrients supplied from agricultural produce. Increase in household size increased energy and nutrient required from agricultural production. Conclusion Own agricultural production contributes limitedly to household energy and nutrient needs in the sub-region. There are great variations in the households’ capacity to derive energy and nutrients from own agricultural produce in Karamoja sub-region. Polygamy, subsistence farming, education and household size predicted energy and nutrients required from and supplied by agricultural production.

Abstract Background While it has identified that linking smallholders in the agri-food value chain remains to be a promising strategy to get out of the poverty trap in many developing countries, less is known about the food security implications of smallholders’ participation in the fruits value chain. This paper examines the effects of apple and mango smallholder farmers’ participation along the value chain, focusing on their household food security in north-western Ethiopia. Methods Primary data for the study were obtained from a random sample of 384 households, 211 of which are fruit value chain participants, and the remainder are non-participants. The study used the propensity score matching (PSM) method to establish a causal relationship between the participation of the fruit value chain and changes in household food security. Results and conclusions Results indicate that participation in the apple and mango value chain has a robust and positive effect on the food security of smallholders as measured by household food consumption in kilocalorie. The unconfoundedness and overlapping assumptions were fulfilled by applying the nearest neighbor and kernel-based matching algorithms. The study confirms that the more apple and mango farmers join the value chain, the higher their household food intake becomes. Support for fruit farmers is, therefore, a promising policy approach that can help improve household food security in rural Ethiopia.

Abstract Background Empowering women, land tilting to enhance the security of Land Tenure and Property Rights (LTPRs) in agriculture vis-a-vis food and nutrition security are crucial in the pursuit of the Sustainable Development Goals. The main goal of this paper is to examine the crucial roles of women’s empowerment and LTPRs as they affect household food security among smallholder farmers in Nigeria. Methodology Cross-sectional data were obtained from 1152 maize and rice farmers, selected by multistage random sampling across 192 communities, 16 States and the six geopolitical zones in Nigeria. The data were collected on households’ socio-economics, food security situations, empowerment and LTPRs on parcels cultivated during the 2016/17 farming season by interviewing the adult members of the farmers’ households. HFS was assessed using the United States Department of Agriculture’ HFS Survey Module and Food and Agriculture Organization guidelines for measuring Household Dietary Diversity Score. LTPRs were measured in terms of tenure type and title registration to farmlands. HFS modelling was within the framework of Poisson, Instrumental Variable Poisson (IVP) and Zero-inflated Poisson (ZIP) regression methods, with endogeneity concerns and choice of specification addressed within Hausman specification tests. Results The results of the study show that households that have a share of farmland on purchase and also participate in off-farm activities are likely to be certainly food-secure in all regards. Crop diversity, households that cultivate maize only, the share of farmland on purchase and access to extension contact significantly reduce the severity of food insecurity while an increase in farm size increases the severity of food insecurity. Similarly, IV Poisson and ZIP Count results show that increase in the farm size results in the severity of food insecurity. The evidence with respect to women’s empowerment reveals that gender parity and female achievement in group membership, income control, as well as workload; reduce the extent of food insecurity among the farming households in Nigeria. We, however, discover that the female achievement in the productive decision and credit increases the severity of food insecurity among the smallholder farmers. The analyses also reveal that education of the household head, female achievement in the asset; group membership and workload are the major factors that positively influenced household dietary diversity. Conclusion The study suggests the adoption of climate-smart practices to overcome the issue of marginal farmlands, promotion of crop and livelihood diversification among the smallholder farmers, effective extension services delivery, and improving women’s access to productive resources to enhance household food security status in Nigeria.

Abstract Background This paper concerns the role of crop diversification in improving household food security in central Malawi. In this country, the agricultural sector is dominated by smallholder farming and rain-fed food production systems that are facing increasing challenges from land degradation and declining soil fertility. Maize is the staple food crop, and as such, the majority of farmers grow it regardless of land suitability. This has led to what scientists have labeled as “maize poverty trap.” In the event of prolonged drought, maize fails thus leaving farmers food insecure. However, research in Sub-Saharan Africa has shown that crop diversification provides smallholder farmers with a diversity of diet, improves their income, and nutrition security. Due to increased cases of malnutrition and food insecurity, in the wake of climate change, government of Malawi has in the past few years intensified extension efforts for crop diversification. Methods The study is based on a sample of 271 randomly selected smallholder farming households from central Malawi. It investigates the influence of crop diversification and other household socioeconomic characteristics on the household Food Consumption Score and Household Food Insecurity Access Score. In our analysis, we rely heavily on a combination of ordinary least squares techniques and some descriptive statistics. Results Our results show that crop diversification, cattle ownership, access to credit and attaining of education have a positive and significant effect on the household Food Consumption Score. Precisely, crop diversification, cattle ownership and access to credit are all significant at 5% level, while education is significant at 10%. In addition, crop diversification and attaining of formal education by household head were found to have a negative and significant effect on Household Food Insecurity Access Score and were all significant at 1% level. Conclusion and policy recommendation Based on our study findings, we conclude that crop diversification is one viable option in smallholder farming that can ensure establishment of resilient agricultural systems that can contribute significantly to household food security. In terms of policy, the results imply that the current efforts by government of Malawi to intensify promotion of crop diversification should remain a priority policy direction due to the continued malnutrition and food insecurity threat. This is particularly so in this era of climate variability that poses an extra burden to farmers.