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This interdisciplinary research project deals with the tradition of how physical anthropology was done in Austria from 1938 to 1945 and the links of the Anthropologische Abteilung of the Natural History Museum (NHM) in Vienna with other, similarly directed institutions as it became increasingly involved in 'racial studies'. These studies were carried out on human beings: prisoners of war (1940-1943), 440 male eastern Jews of Polish origin who were detained immediately after the outbreak of the war for three weeks in the Vienna Stadium and then deported to the Buchenwald concentration camp, and the material collected in racial surveys--some of which is still preserved in the museum (data sheets, photographs, hair samples, plaster cast masks, 'race expertises'). These racial surveys have never been addressed in relevant literature. Included in this project are our evaluations of the more than 100 'race expertises' carried out by anthropologists at the NHM. We first investigated these activities initiated by members of the NHM staff in order to assess the extent to which anthropology could be exploited by anthropologists under National Socialism who could take advantage of the new political situation for pursuing their research interests and the war for acquiring 'new material'. Then we traced the life histories of the Polish Jews detained in the Vienna Stadium in the context of National Socialist deportation policy. Third, we deal with the question of racist theory constructs and its approach to the measurement of the human body. Financial support was granted through the Austrian Science Research Fund (P 13779-HIS).

It has been argued that the males from Early Bronze Age groups in Central Europe are generally more robust than the females. This interpretation is difficult to evaluate, since no clear definition of robusticity is present in the studies. To assess sexual pattern of robusticity, a sample of femora of 58 individuals from three Early Bronze Age groups of Lower Austria (Unetice, Unterwolbling and Wieselburg) have been selected. Nine biomechanical parameters (TA, CA, MA, %CA, [I.sub.x], [I.sub.y], [I.sub.max], [I.sub.min], J) have been computed by semiautomatic approach using CT data and newly developed software. Comparing 80% and 50% cross-sections of the femoral diaphysis, a complex pattern of robusticity among males and females of Early Bronze Age groups has been found. Part of described 'robusticity' in the raw data is primary related to body size, when the larger body size of males is interpreted to be more robust. This is indicated by significantly large values of areas (TA, CA and MA), second and polar moment of areas (I and J) for male individuals but no significant differences in percentage of cortical area to total area (%CA) between both sexes. However, the opposite pattern appears when size adjusted data are employed. In size adjusted data, no significant differences in cross-sectional areas (TA, CA and MA) have been found between males and females. Surprisingly given previous statements, females exhibit significantly larger values in relative bending and torsional strength (I and J). Therefore, if robusticity is not confused with body size differences, but defined as strengthening of bone tissues to higher mechanical loading, females in Early Bronze Age groups of Central Europe exhibit significantly greater robusticity in femoral diaphysis than males.

Computer tomography offers a noninvasive possibility to examine cross-sectional geometry of long bones. We tested different methods (Nagurka and Hayes 1980, Corcacon et. al. 1995) for calculating biomechanical parameters from CT images of long bone cross section based on trigonometric and image analysis approaches using archaeologic (75 adult bronze age individuals from 3 different populations from Lower Austria) and recent samples (anatomical collection from the Institute of Anatomy, University of Vienna) of long bones. Both approaches do not only lead to different problems concerning computation but also to different biological meanings of the calculated biomechanical parameters. However, image analysis of digital CT-images suggests an easier and observer independent way of calculating the desired biomechanical parameters automatically and directly from standard medical image-files (DICOM). We have developed computer software that allows optional, interactive and automated data preparation for computation, depending on the state of preservation of the bone samples and the method applied. Our software uses the CT files directly and offers immediate computation of biomechanical parameters with either approach and as a series of anatomical context. Therefore it is possible to analyse larger series of long bones in a convenient period of time. After computation the results can be easily exported to other programs for further calculations like statistical analysis and 3D visualisation. Because of the modular design of the computer program new data processing units can be added in future.

Techniques that are currently available for estimating stature and body mass from European skeletal remains are all subject to various limitations. Here, we develop new prediction equations based on large skeletal samples representing much of the continent and temporal periods ranging from the Mesolithic to the 20th century. Anatomical reconstruction of stature is carried out for 501 individuals, and body mass is calculated from estimated stature and biiliac breadth in 1,145 individuals. These data are used to derive stature estimation formulae based on long bone lengths and body mass estimation formulae based on femoral head breadth. Prediction accuracy is superior to that of previously available methods. No systematic geographic or temporal variation in prediction errors is apparent, except in tibial estimation of stature, where northern and southern European formulae are necessary because of the presence of relatively longer tibiae in southern samples. Thus, these equations should bebroadly applicable to European Holocene skeletal samples., (Copyright © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

In comparing long-bone cross-sectional geometric properties between individuals, percentages of bone length are often used to identify equivalent locations along the diaphysis. In fragmentary specimens where bone lengths cannot be measured, however, these locations must be estimated more indirectly. In this study, we examine the effect of inaccurately located femoral and tibial midshafts on estimation of geometric properties. The error ranges were compared on 30 femora and tibiae from the Eneolithic and Bronze Age. Cross-sections were obtained at each 1% interval from 60 to 40% of length using CT scans. Five percent of deviation from midshaft properties was used as the maximum acceptable error. Reliability was expressed by mean percentage differences, standard deviation of percentage differences, mean percentage absolute differences, limits of agreement, and mean accuracy range (MAR) (range within which mean deviation from true midshaft values was less than 5%). On average, tibial cortical area and femoral second moments of area are the least sensitive to positioning error, with mean accuracy ranges wide enough for practical application in fragmentary specimens (MAR = 40-130 mm). In contrast, tibial second moments of area are the most sensitive to error in midshaft location (MAR = 14-20 mm). Individuals present significant variation in morphology and thus in error ranges for different properties. For highly damaged fossil femora and tibiae we recommend carrying out additional tests to better establish specific errors associated with uncertain length estimates., (2009 Wiley-Liss, Inc.)

It is assumed that the transition from the Late Eneolithic to the Early Bronze Age in Central Europe was associated with substantial changes in subsistence and the perception of gender differences. However, the archeological record itself does not entirely support this model. Alternatively, this transition may be interpreted as a continuous process. We used asymmetry in external dimensions, and asymmetry in size and distribution of cortical tissue of humeri to elucidate the nature of this transition with respect to differences in manipulative behavior. The total sample of 67 individuals representing five archaeological cultures was used. The results indicate that the pattern of asymmetry of the humeral external measurements and the cross-sectional parameters taken at 35% of humeral biomechanical length remain stable during the Late Eneolithic and Early Bronze Age. However, females of both periods show fluctuating asymmetry for all of the cross-sectional parameters, but directional asymmetry for biomechanical length. Males are nonsignificantly shifted from the line of equivalence for biomechanical length, but exhibit directional asymmetry for the cortical area and polar moment of area. Only distal articular breadth yields fluctuating asymmetry for both females and males in both periods. Thus, the transition from the Late Eneolithic to the Early Bronze Age can be seen as a continuous process that probably affected only a limited part of human activities. We interpret the differences between females and males of both periods as evidence of gender-specific activities; males might have been associated with extra-domestic agricultural labor that resulted in asymmetrical manipulative loading and females with domestic labor with symmetrical manipulative loading in both periods., ((c) 2007 Wiley-Liss, Inc.)

Some scholars explain the absence of settlements in the Bohemian and Moravian Late Eneolithic (Corded Ware archaeological culture) as a consequence of pastoral subsistence with a high degree of mobility. However, recent archaeological studies argued that the archaeological record of the Late Eneolithic in Central Europe exhibits evidence for sedentary subsistence with mixed agriculture, similar to the subsequent Early Bronze Age. Because the archaeological data do not allow us to address unambiguously the mobility pattern in these periods, we used cross-sectional analysis of the femoral midshaft to test mobility directly on the human skeletal record. The results of femoral midshaft geometry do not support a high degree of mobility in the Late Eneolithic in Central Europe. This conclusion is supported mainly by no significant differences in male groups between the Late Eneolithic and Early Bronze Age in mechanical robusticity and shape of the femoral midshaft, although Corded Ware males still exhibit the highest absolute mean values of the diaphyseal shape (I(A-P)/I(M-L)) ratio and antero-posterior second moment of area. However, Late Eneolithic females have significantly higher torsional and overall bending rigidity because of a significantly higher medio-lateral second moment of area. This finding cannot be directly linked with a higher degree of long-distance mobility for these females. A significant difference was also found in overall decrease of size parameters of the femoral midshaft cross section for one of the Early Bronze Age samples, the Wieselburger females. Since the decrease of size and mechanical robusticity for Wieselburger females does not correspond with the parameters of Early Bronze Age females, we can expect a mosaic pattern of changes during the Late Eneolithic and Early Bronze Age period, instead of a simple unidirectional (diachronic) change of the mechanical environment.

In the present study 38 unworn maxillary molars (M1 = 16, M2 = 12, M3 = 10) of modern humans from a Slavic necropolis were sectioned through the mesial cusps in a plane perpendicular to the cervical margin of the crown. Five slightly worn M1s and one slightly worn M3 were also used thus increasing the total sample to 44, but measurements made on the worn areas were coded as missing values. Seven measurements of enamel thickness as well as the heights of the protocone and the paracone dentine horns were recorded in order to analyze whether changes in these dimensions in anteroposterior direction can be related to the helicoidal occlusal plane. Uni- and multivariate analyses revealed that the distribution of enamel thickness within and between maxillary molars corresponds to a helicoidal occlusal wear pattern. Enamel thickness along the occlusal basin increases from anterior to posterior, which may lead to rapid development of a reverse curve of Monson in first molars when compared to posterior teeth. However, although these overall differences together with the serial, especially delayed eruption pattern of human molars, contribute to the marked expression of the helicoidal occlusal plane in Homo, differences in enamel patterning between molars indicate that a helicoidal plane is a structural feature of the orofacial skeleton. In contrast to first upper molars, second and third molars show absolutely and relatively thicker enamel under the Phase I wear facet of the paracone, i.e., the lingual slope of the paracone, than under the Phase II facet of the protocone, i.e., the buccal slope of that cusp. These proportional differences are most pronounced in M3, as evidenced by uni- and multivariate statistics. It thus appears that the pattern of enamel thickness distribution from M1 to M3 follows a trend towards providing additional tooth material in areas that are under greater functional demands, that is, corresponding to a lingual slope of wear anteriorly and to a flat or even buccal one posteriorly. In addition, the heights of the dentine horns in anteroposterior direction change in a way that lends support to the hypothesis that the axial inclination of teeth could be one of the most important factors for the development of the helicoidal occlusal plane. Finally, the changes in morphology and enamel thickness distribution from first to third upper molars found in this study suggest that molars could be "specialized" in their function, i.e., from performing proportionally more shearing anteriorly to increased crushing and grinding activities posteriorly.

Forty-four modern human maxillary molars (M1 = 21, M2 = 12, and M3 = 11) were sectioned through the mesial cusps in a plane perpendicular to the cervical margin of the crown. Eight measurements of enamel thickness as well as bucco-lingual (BL) and mesio-distal (MD) diameters were recorded for each tooth in order to investigate differences in these dimensions between tooth categories. Uni- and multi-variate analyses revealed first maxillary molars to have generally thinner enamel than second or third upper molars, especially with regard to the occlusal basin. Furthermore, the decrease of MD diameters from anterior to posterior is greater than that of BL diameters. Principal Component Analysis using enamel thickness measurements resulted in complete separation of first molars, while second and third maxillary molars showed a certain amount of overlap. This finding casts doubt on using an overall measure of "molar enamel thickness" derived from mixed samples of molars for taxonomic purposes. There appears to be a relationship between bite force and enamel thickness such that posterior molars, where masticatory forces are stronger, have thicker enamel than anterior teeth. It is suggested that the gradient of enamel thickness between (and within) teeth in extant and extinct species may thus provide further information about relative wear resistance as well as the biomechanical constraints of the orofacial skeleton.