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Animal feed is very frequently contaminated with different types of mold, the metabolites of which are toxic to living organisms. Mold-contaminated cereal is rich in heat-resistant and harmful metabolites such as fumonisins (FBs). The amount of FBs consumed as part of animal feed, including livestock feed, is unknown. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the effects of maternal oral FB intoxication on basal duodenum morphology and the immunolocalization of gut hormones responsible for food intake (leptin and ghrelin), as well as their receptors, in newborn rat offspring. Pregnant Wistar rats were randomly allocated to one of three groups: a control group or one of two FB-intoxicated groups (60 or 90 mg FB/kg b.w., respectively). Basal morphological duodenal parameters changed in a dose- and sex-dependent manner. The intensity of the ghrelin immunoreaction was unchanged in females, while in males it increased after FB exposure (60 mg/kg b.w.), with a simultaneous decrease in expression of the ghrelin receptor. Leptin and its receptor immunoreaction intensity was decreased in both sexes following FB exposure. The current study highlighted the potential involvement of intestinal ghrelin and leptin in the metabolic disturbances observed later in life in offspring that were prenatally exposed to fumonisins.

Cereals are often contaminated with fumonisins, which are the toxic byproducts of mold. The aim of the study was to determine the effect of maternal exposure to fumonisins on the development and the liver function of the offspring at weaning. Two doses of fumonisins (60 and 90 mg/kg b.w.) were tested. The changes in the basal blood morphology, the biochemical parameters, the absolute and relative weights of the vital organs, and the changes in the cardiac and biceps brachii muscle histology were studied. The liver damage was assessed by evaluating the liver morphology and the common clinical liver panel. Maternal fumonisin intoxication caused a decrease in the body weight at birth and an increase in the heart, liver, kidney, lungs, ovaries, and testes weights. The cytokines and hormones, as well as the red blood cell counts and hemoglobin levels, were elevated in a dose-dependent manner following the exposure to fumonisins. Maternal exposure caused degenerative morphological and structural changes in the liver, as well as inflammation in the striated muscles, such as the heart and biceps brachii, and disproportionate development of the rat offspring in a dose-dependent manner. Moreover, FB exposure resulted in the disproportional development of the rat offspring in a dose-dependent manner, which was probably caused by the bodily hormonal dysregulation. Prenatal fumonisin exposure can be a pathological precursor for serious diseases, such as obesity and diabetes, later in life.

The current study tested the hypothesis that 1.0% dietary inclusion of L-glutamine (Gln), an non-essential amino acid that influences protein synthesis, can improve internal egg quality, including amino acids profile. Thirty-week-old Bovans Brown laying hens in their middle laying period were assigned to one of the two experimental groups (12 replicate cages, 2 hens/cage) with Gln in the form of alpha-ketoglutarate (10 g/kg) or without Gln inclusion. The experimental period lasted for 30 wks, from the 31st to the 60th week of age of hens, when eggs were collected and selected egg quality indices were determined. Gln supplementation had no effect on albumen and egg yolk share, albumen and yolk basal indices and composition, including yolk cholesterol content. However, Gln decreased the lipid content of the egg albumen ( p < 0.001), and influenced albumen amino acid profile, increasing content of asparagine ( p < 0.05), phenylalanine ( p < 0.05), proline ( p < 0.001), tryptophan ( p < 0.01), and tyrosine ( p < 0.05). In conclusion, the study shows a potential role of Gln supplementation for enhancing nutritional values of eggs by lower lipid content and higher amino acid profile.

Prenatal and postnatal supplementation with β-hydroxy-β-methylbutyrate (HMB) and alpha-ketoglutaric acid (AKG) affects the development and maturation of offspring. Both substances have the potential to stimulate cell metabolism via different routes. However, parity affects development and may alter the effects of dietary supplementation. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of gestational supplementation with HMB and/or AKG to primiparous and multiparous minks on the structure and maturation of the offspring's small intestine. Primiparous and multiparous American minks ( Neovison vison ), of the standard dark brown type, were supplemented daily with HMB (0.02 g/kg b.w.) and/or AKG (0.4 g/kg b.w.) during gestation ( n = 7 for each treatment). Supplementation stopped when the minks gave birth. Intestine samples were collected from 8-month-old male and female offspring during autopsy and histology and histomorphometry analysis was conducted (LAEC approval no 64/2015). Gestational supplementation had a long-term effect, improving the structure of the offspring's intestine toward facilitating absorption and passage of intestinal contents. AKG supplementation affected intestinal absorption (enterocytes, villi and absorptive surface), and HMB affected intestinal peristalsis and secretion (crypts and Goblet cells). These effects were strongly dependent on parity and offspring gender. Present findings have important nutritional implications and should be considered in feeding practices and supplementation plans in animal reproduction.

The current study investigated the effects of the inclusion of modern hybrid rye (Brasetto variety) to a corn-wheat-based diet, with or without xylanase, on the absorptive surface of the small intestine of broilers. A total of 224 one-day-old male Ross 308 broiler chicks were randomly divided into four experimental groups with seven replicate cages of eight birds/replicate. A 2 × 2 factorial study design was used, with rye inclusion (0% or 20%) and xylanase supplementation (0 or 200 mg/kg of feed) as factors. Inclusion of rye increased duodenal and ileal crypt depth, villi height, the villus-to-crypt ratio and absorption surface area ( p < 0.05), and ileal mucosa thickness and crypt width ( p < 0.05). Xylanase supplementation attenuated the effects of rye in the duodenum and ileum and decreased the villi height and villus-to-crypt ratio in the jejunum ( p < 0.05). Rye and xylanase had no effect on the spatial distribution of claudin 3 and ZO-1 protein, but xylanase supplementation reduced the amount of claudin 3 in the duodenum and jejunum ( p < 0.05). The findings of this study indicate that 20% inclusion of modern hybrid rye to the diets of broilers improved the structure of the duodenum and ileum, but these effects were attenuated by xylanase supplementation.

The effect of alpha-ketoglutaric acid (AKG) supplementation to experimentally-induced, perinatal growth-retarded piglets was examined. Sows were treated with a synthetic glucocorticoid (Gc) during the last 25 days of pregnancy, and after the birth, piglets were randomly divided into three groups depending on the treatment. The Gc/Gc + AKG and Gc/AKG groups born by Gc-treated sows after the birth were treated with Gc or Gc + AKG for 35 days. Significantly lower serum growth hormone, IGF-I, osteocalcin, leptin, and cortisol concentrations were observed in the Gc/Gc + AKG group, while the bone alkaline phosphatase activity was significantly higher. Serum insulin concentration was higher in the control group. Serum alanine, lysine, histidine, and tryptophan concentrations were higher in the Gc/Gc + AKG and Gc/AKG groups. The perinatal action of Gc significantly affects histomorphometry of articular cartilage and trabecular bone and bone mechanics. The results clearly showed that dietary AKG had positive effects with regards to the profile of free amino acids. Taking into account the function of AKG as an energy donor and stimulator of collagen synthesis, it can be concluded that the anabolic role of AKG may be the main mechanism responsible for its protective effect against the GC-induced perinatal intensified catabolic state.

The aim of the experiment was to assess the effect of dietary alpha-ketoglutarate (AKG) supplementation on performance, serum hormonal indices, duodenum and jejunum histomorphometry, meat quality characteristics, bone quality traits and cartilage degradation in laying hens with a mature skeletal system. Forty-eight 30 week-old Bovans Brown laying hens were randomly assigned to a control group or the group fed the basal diet plus 1.0% AKG. The experimental trial lasted 30 weeks. The supplementation of AKG increases blood serum content of leptin, ghrelin, bone alkaline phosphatate and receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa-Β ligand, while osteoprotegerin and osteocalcin decrease. While dietary AKG was given to laying hens negatively influenced villus length, crypt depth, villus/crypt ratio and absorptive surface area in duodenum and jejunum, these changes have no effect on feed intake, weight gain, nor laying performance. In breast muscles, no significant changes in skeletal muscle fatty acid composition were observed, however, a higher shear force and decreased cholesterol content following AKG supplementation were noted, showing the improvement of muscle quality. While dietary AKG supplementation did not affect the general geometric and mechanical properties of the tibia, it increased collagen synthesis and enhanced immature collagen content. In medullary bone, an increase of bone volume fraction, trabecular thickness, fractal dimension and decrease of trabecular space were observed in AKG supplemented group. The trabeculae in bone metaphysis were also significantly thicker after AKG supplementation. AKG promoted fibrillogenesis in articular cartilage, as indicated by increased cartilage oligomeric matrix protein immunoexpression. By improving the structure and maintaining the proper bone turnover rate of highly reactive and metabolically active medullar and trabecular bones AKG showed its anti-osteoporotic action in laying hens.

This study was conducted to examine the effect of dietary rye inclusion and xylanase supplementation on the bone quality of ISA Brown laying hens. Ninety-six laying hens were assigned to four groups: fed with wheat-corn diet or rye-wheat-corn diet (25% of hybrid rye inclusion) or nonsupplemented or supplemented with xylanase (200 mg/kg of feed) for a period of 25 weeks, from the 26th to the 50th week of age. X-ray absorptiometry, X-ray diffraction, and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy were used to provide comprehensive information about the structural organization of bone constitutive phases of the tibia mid-diaphysis in hens from all treatment groups. Bone hydroxyapatite size was not affected by diet. Xylanase supplementation influenced the carbonate-to-phosphate ratio and crystallinity index in hens fed with both diets. Xylanase had more pronounced effects on bone mineral density and collagen maturity in hens fed with the rye-wheat-corn diet versus those fed with the wheat-corn diet. The results of this study showed that modern rye varieties, when supplemented with exogenous xylanase, can be introduced to the diet of laying hens without any adverse effects on bone structure., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

The objective of the current study is to assess the effects of the inclusion of 6-n phytase to a phosphorous-deficient diet on the growth performance (feed intake, average daily gain, and feed conversion ratio), apparent digestibility of calcium and phosphorus, and bone characteristics of grower-finisher pigs. The experimental diets included a phosphorus-deficient diet containing 0 (negative control), 250, 500, 1000, or 1500 FTU/kg of 6-phytase, and a diet formulated to meet the phosphorus nutrient requirements of pigs (positive control). Pigs were fed the experimental diets from the time they were ~35 kg body weight until they reached slaughter weight of ~110 kg. Bone status of the metacarpal (ash, mineral content) and femur (mineralization, geometry, and mechanical strength) bones were assessed. There was no effect of dietary treatment on feed intake. Feed conversion ratio was improved following inclusion of phytase at a dose of 500 FTU/kg or higher. Phytase inclusion at a dose of 1000 FTU/kg increased the average daily weight gain of grower-finisher pigs. Phytase inclusion at a dose of 500 FTU/kg was sufficient to increase metacarpal phosphorus content. Femur mid-diaphysis ash percentage was significantly increased even after the inclusion of the lowest dose of phytase. Analysis of structural parameters of femur mechanical strength (Young's modulus, yield stress, yield strain, ultimate stress, ultimate strain) showed that the inclusion of a phytase dose of 500 FTU/kg in growing/finishing diets was sufficient to significantly improve bone status of grower-finisher pigs at slaughter.

In this study, the effect of long-term 2-oxoglutaric acid (2-Ox) supplementation to experimentally-induced intrauterine growth retarded gilts was examined. Sows were treated with synthetic glucocorticoid (dexamethasone) every second day, during the last 45 days of pregnancy, at a dose of 0.03 mg/kg b.w. At birth, the gilts were randomly divided into two groups: unsupplemented and supplemented with 2-Ox for nine months (0.4 g/kg body weight/day). Oral supplementation of 2-Ox to experimentally-induced intrauterine growth retarded gilts increased body weight at weaning as well as final body weight at the age of nine months, and showed a regenerative effect on bone mineralization and morphology of trabeculae and articular cartilage. The positive effects on bone structure were attributed to the 2-Ox-induced alterations in bone metabolism, as evidenced by the changes in the expression of proteins involved in bone formation and remodeling: osteocalcin (OC), osteoprotegerin (OPG), receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa-Β ligand (RANKL), tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases 2 (TIMP-2), bone morphogenetic protein 2 (BMP-2), cartilage oligomeric matrix protein (COMP), and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

The aim of the study was to investigate the changes in bone geometry, histological structure, and selected mechanical characteristics in young male and female Japanese quails supplemented with Saccharomyces cerevisiae . Quails were fed a basal diet containing no yeast or a basal diet supplemented with 1.5% (15 g per 1 kg of diet) of inactive S. cerevisiae , for a period of 42 days. S. cerevisiae inclusion had no effect on bone weight, length, and density, diaphysis geometry (cross-sectional area, wall thickness, moment of inertia) or on the mechanical strength (yield load, ultimate load, stiffness, Young's modulus, yield stress, ultimate stress). Yeast supplementation improved the morphology of the articular cartilage both in male and female quails, as the total thickness of the articular cartilage was significantly increased. In trabecular bone, an increase in real bone volume and trabecular thickness was observed in females supplemented with S. cerevisiae , while in males the increase in trabecular number was accompanied by a reduction in trabecular thickness. The results of the present study demonstrate that S. cerevisiae , through a sex-dependent action on the gut-bone axis, improved the structure of articular cartilage and microarchitecture of trabecular bone. The positive effects of S. cerevisiae supplementation were more evident in female quails., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflict of interest.