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China's ambitious endeavor to curtail carbon emissions has led to heightened governmental attention on addressing the issue of excessive carbon emissions. As governmental tolerance for such emissions diminishes, governments promote and support more proactive emission reduction methods of green innovation in enterprises. This study analyzes panel data from Chinese-listed businesses to explore the correlation between regional carbon emission pressure and green innovation. Our findings indicate a positive relationship between carbon emission pressure and enterprises' engagement in green innovation initiatives. Governmentenvironmental attention, punitive regulations, and incentive subsidies are the main channels. Market policies, including carbon emission trading and green credit policies, potentially impact the interplay between carbon emission pressure and green innovation. Moreover, our heterogeneity analysis underscores that enterprises facing looser financing constraints, exhibiting more social responsibility initiatives, and operating within polluting industries tend to experience a more pronounced positive impact than their counterparts in other sectors. • Regional carbon emission pressure has significantly promoted enterprises' green innovation. • Government awareness, punitive regulations, and incentive subsidies are the main channels. • The 2015 Paris Agreement in 21st United Nations Climate Change Conference contributes to the promotion of green innovation of enterprises. • The carbon emission trading and green credit policies enhance the promotion of green innovation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate policies such as carbon tax and green finance policy are critical measures to promote low-carbon transition worldwide. These policies are, however, likely to interact with each other and create unintentional consequences. This paper adopts a stock-flow consistent model to theoretically explore the effects of policy interactions. Specifically, commercial banks, as the key credit creators and critical players in providing source of finance, are included. Based on the numerical simulations of the dynamic model, we find that both carbon tax and green finance policies render positive impacts on low-carbon transition. In addition, green credit incentives, if imposed simultaneously with carbon tax, can enhance the positive effects. Although low-carbon transition could generate higher net government revenues, our results show that banking sector tends to expose to higher financial risks when firms' debt-equity ratio rises. Further analysis shows that subsidies on green loans can support green transition and bring positive consequences to debt rollover and social welfare, indicating the needs for active government intervention to improve policy effectiveness. The framework proposed in this paper provides a useful way to understand policy dilemmas in pursuing low-carbon transition and give important implications to form optimal policy mix. • A stock-flow consistent model is developed to examine climate policy interactions. • We show that climate policy-mix can generate both positive and negative effects. • Green finance policies can enhance green investment and induce higher financial risks. • Active government intervention such as green subsidies can ease financial distress and improve policy effectiveness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Addressing the dynamic performance aspects of processes and identifying the sources of inefficiency are key considerations for making informed decisions, especially in situations where imprecise data are available. This study aims to evaluate the performance of renewable energy using the Fuzzy Dynamic Directional Distance Function (FDDDF) model considering natural and managerial disposability for 34 OECD member countries. As a non-parametric methodology, Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) is used to measure dynamic fuzzy environmental efficiencies of renewable energy through multiple fuzzy inputs and outputs. Using the proposed approach, optimistic, pessimistic and integrated renewable energy performances of entities with carry-overs are assessed for each period and generally. The empirical findings reveal that the proposed FDDDF approach has strong capability to discriminate the performance of renewable energy. • Evaluating the renewable energy performance using a fuzzy dynamic DDF model under natural and managerial disposability, • Proposing a fuzzy dynamic double frontier DDF approach for the assessment of the performance in each period and generally, • Analyzing the renewable energy dynamic efficiency of OECD countries with fuzzy measures, • Renewable energy efficiency improvement in OECD nations was mainly driven by policy support and environmental security, • There has been a gradual improvement in energy efficiency of countries under consideration during 2018–2020. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Direct and indirect effects of sectors on net energy consumption are analysed. • Level effect is identified as the major driver for increasing energy consumption. • Manufacturing has the largest energy consumption reduction potential. • How to decrease net energy consumption has been offered to policy-makers. This paper provides a comprehensive analysis of Australian net energy consumption between 2004–05 and 2014–15. Results from environmentally-extended input-output (EEIO) analysis show that the Transport sector has the largest direct effect on net energy consumption in industrial sectors, which decreased by about 35% for net energy consumption per million $AUD in the period. The Export sector has the largest direct net energy consumption while Households consumption results in the largest net energy consumption embodied in different categories of Final demand. The structural decomposition analysis (SDA) decomposes the change of net energy consumption into five drivers, in which net energy intensity mainly reduces Australian net energy consumption by about 8000 Petajoules, while the level effect of Final demand increases it by about 10,000 Petajoules. Analysis of forward and backward linkages highlights the Manufacturing sector as the key industrial sector with the largest energy consumption reduction potential via minor changes in its input and Final demand. This indicates that more attention should be given to the reduction of energy demand from the consumption patterns of Households consumption, the improvement of energy intensity, and the application of cleaner technologies in the Transport and Manufacturing sectors. The Australian Environmental-Economic Accounts is combined with Australian input-output tables to construct the EEIO tables for net energy consumption. The combination of economic and environmental data sets provides a depth of understanding their potential to inform environmental policy decisions. The novelty of the research is the combination of economic and energy data sets, the application of EEIO model, the implementation of the additive SDA method, and the use of forward and backward linkages for the Australian energy system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • The impact of the ETS on social equity is assessed. • A dynamic CGE model with disaggregated labor and household sectors is developed. • Employment in China's coal industry will decline by 75% in 2030 in the ETS scenario. • ETS revenue will peak at 2278 billion yuan in 2042 in our scenario. • ETS revenue redistribution can reduce the Gini coefficient by 10% compared to BAU. Abstract Carbon dioxide emissions trading systems (ETS) are an important market-based mitigation strategy and have been applied in many regions. This study evaluates the potential for a national ETS in China. Using a dynamic computable general equilibrium (CGE) model with detailed representations of economic activity, emissions, and income distribution, we examine alternative mitigation policies from now until 2050. Based on statistical and survey data, we disaggregate the labor and household sectors and simulate the impacts of ETS policies on the incomes of different household groups. We find that ETS has the potential to reconcile China's goals for sustained, inclusive, and low-carbon economic growth. Results show some key findings. First, the number of unemployed people in energy-intensive industries such as coal and construction will continue to increase; by 2050, employment in the coal industry will decline by 75%. Second, if the scope of the carbon market extends to all industries in China, carbon market revenues will continue to increase, reaching a maximum of 2278 billion yuan ($336 billion) in 2042 to become the world's largest carbon market. Third, the distribution of benefits from the national ETS can help achieve greater social equity. By comparing different distribution policies, we find that the combination of targeted subsidies for unemployed coal workers and direct household subsidies based on proportional per capita will reduce the social income gap to the greatest extent compared with other scenarios. By 2050, this distribution policy will reduce the Gini coefficient in China by 10% compared to the Business as Usual (BAU) scenario. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Linkage enables ETS sectors in EU and China to achieve 5% additional carbon reduction without increasing welfare losses. • Unlimited linking hinders the development of renewable energy in EU. • The international competitiveness of energy intensive sectors in China is adversely affected by linking. • Choosing the appropriate limit value a to restrict the tradable permits can reduce the negative impacts of linking. Abstract With the increasing popularity of emission trading system (ETS) worldwide and the necessity of international cooperation on climate change, the interest of linking various ETSs is growing. This paper adopts a multi-regional, general equilibrium model to simulate linkages between China's national ETS and the EU ETS and analyze the emissions, energy and economic impacts of such linkages. In order to study the role of linking in further increasing mitigation ambitions of China and the EU, and compare unlimited linkage with limited linkage, the paper further develops scenarios in which both China and the EU set higher ambition cap for their ETSs and unlimited or limited linkage is established between the two ETSs. The results indicate that unlimited linking can effectively promote the emission reduction ambitions of both China and the EU without inducing additional welfare losses to them. When both China and the EU set more intensified targets for ETS sectors and undertake additional 169 million tons carbon reductions, unlimited linking can make China's welfare remain basically unchanged and the EU's welfare increase by 0.29%, compared to implementing ETS independently under original reduction targets. However, unlimited linking has adverse effects on the competitiveness of China's energy intensive sectors and the development of EU's renewable energy. Compared to unlimited linking, limited linking effectively reduces these adverse effects. The paper concludes that China's national ETS and the EU ETS can establish a linkage to further increase their ambitions, while at the same time use import quotas to limit the permits that can be traded to reduce the negative impacts of linking on the two systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Emission abatement sector extended input-output table (EAS-IOT) is established. • Emission charge, abatement cost and abatement benefit are measured monetarily. • Datasets of EAS-IOT including 3 and 16 pollutions at national and provincial levels are provided. • A case study of environmental efficiency evaluation and environmental policy analysis for Beijing is given as an application. Abstract Environmentally extended input-output table (EEIOT), a balanced matrix of industrial commodity and environmental resources, is widely used to evaluate environmental policy impacts. However, the existing EEIOTs contain energy consumption and pollution emission but neglect emission abatement cost and benefit. In this study, a novel Chinese emission abatement sector extended input-output table (EAS-IOT) is developed through introducing abatement cost, emission charge and abatement benefit into the conventional input-output table. Furthermore, this new EAS-IOT is applied to estimate the environmental efficiency and assess the effects of environmental policies on economy and environment. Results show that the new framework of EAS-IOT has advantage on solving the problem of biased efficiency estimation related to the conventional input-output table. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Graphical abstract Highlights • Lifecycle evaluation of energy-CO 2 -economy between coal to oil and oil refinery. • HTFTS–LTFTS coproduction shows high flexibility and strong market adaptability. • HTFTS–LTFTS is superior to oil refinery in economy at a current low oil price. • HTFT–LTFTS is an economic way for coal to oil with low CO 2 emission per GDP. Abstract The lifecycle assessment of energy–greenhouse gases emission–economic performance for single low–temperature Fischer–Tropsch synthesis (LTFTS), high–temperature Fischer–Tropsch synthesis (HTFTS) and HTFTS–LTFTS co-production from coal are investigated and compared to the oil refining process. This covers feedstock supply chain and oil production at the oil refinery and Fischer–Tropsch synthesis (FTS) plants. Results show that the energy input and CO 2 emission are mostly from coal mining and washing and oil production at the plant for FTS plants or oil refinery. Cost input is largely from feedstock cost and capital cost for FTS plants, crude oil cost, and transport cost for oil refining process. Compared to oil refinery pathway, FTS to oil currently presents no advantages in the aspect of lifecycle of energy use and greenhouse gases emission. However, the HTFTS-LTFTS demonstrates a favorable economic feasibility especially at a low oil price, indicating that the combined system presents high flexibility and strong market adaptability compared to traditional stand–alone HTFTS, LTFTS and oil refinery plant. Furthermore, in comparison with single HTFTS and LTFTS plants, HTFTS–LTFTS makes a big progress in CO 2 emission per unit profit due to its excellent economic benefits. Such an alternative way of coal to oil has an enormous potential to simultaneously satisfy requirements of oil safety and standard of CO 2 emission reduction in China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • A modified multi-period Nash-Cournot model is established. • The large-scale of renewables and flexible resources are considered in the model. • The renewables curtailment situations are considered in the model. • An empirical example is provided, based on the real data of BTT region, China. • Suggestions for future electricity and environment policies are presented. Abstract Facing stricter energy policies, the power mix in China is experiencing significant changes. First, the proportion of renewables, which have intermittent and stochastic generation, is assumed to be rapidly increasing. Thus, there is an increasing requirement to install more flexible generation capacity in the power system. According to the Chinese government’s energy planning, in the near future, the proportion of gas-fired units will be greatly promoted to add flexibility to the power system. The impacts incurred by developing a high proportion of both renewables and gas-fired generation on the power market should be formulated and analyzed. In this study, a modified Nash-Cournot equilibrium model is proposed, considering renewable curtailment situations during valley times. Then, a large-scale and multi-period unit commitment model that considers the combined heat and power characteristics is presented to simulate market behaviors. On this basis, an empirical analysis of the Beijing-Tianjin-Tangshan power system equilibrium is illustrated as numerical examples, presenting the influences of the changing power mix on electricity prices, renewable energy integration, carbon emissions and air pollutant emissions. Finally, some suggestions on future electrical and environmental policies are presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the dynamic behaviour of energy intensity across Chinese cities. It employs a dynamic distribution approach which takes economic size into consideration. The results support the existence of convergence in terms of energy intensity among Chinese cities during the sample period. However, bimodality is the dominant characteristic in the long-term distribution using the full sample. The results also show that the distribution dynamics of energy intensity differ greatly among city groups in terms of geographical location, environmental policy, and population size. Weighting by economic size does not change the convergence trend of energy intensity, but has a significant influence on the long-term distribution. Neglecting economic size may overstate the energy reduction performance in Chinese cities. Furthermore, the results also suggest that geographical location, income level, and city population size have a significant impact on the spatial distribution dynamics of energy intensity. However, the formation of convergence clubs is complicated and thus requires further investigation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Energy system optimization models (ESOMs) are widely used to generate insight that informs energy and environmental policy. Using ESOMs to produce policy-relevant insight requires significant modeler judgement, yet little formal guidance exists on how to conduct analysis with ESOMs. To address this shortcoming, we draw on our collective modelling experience and conduct an extensive literature review to formalize best practice for energy system optimization modelling. We begin by articulating a set of overarching principles that can be used to guide ESOM-based analysis. To help operationalize the guiding principles, we outline and explain critical steps in the modelling process, including how to formulate research questions, set spatio-temporal boundaries, consider appropriate model features, conduct and refine the analysis, quantify uncertainty, and communicate insights. We highlight the need to develop and refine formal guidance on ESOM application, which comes at a critical time as ESOMs are being used to inform national climate targets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigate the prospects of three zero-emission scenarios for achieving the target of limiting global mean temperature rise to 2 °C or below, and compare them with the business-as-usual (BAU) scenario involving no climate policy intervention. The “2100 zero” emissions scenario requires zero emissions after 2100 until 2150. The “350 ppm zero” emissions scenario entails zero emissions in the latter half of this century, which can be achieved by the cumulative emissions constraints of the Wigley–Richels–Edmonds (WRE) 350 from 2010 to 2150. Finally, the “net zero” scenario requires zero cumulative emissions from 2010 to 2150, allowing positive emissions over the coming several decades that would be balanced-out by negative emissions in the latter half of the century. The role of biomass energy carbon capture and storage (BECCS) with forested land is also assessed with these scenarios. The results indicate that the 2 °C target can be achieved in the “net zero” scenario, while the “350 ppm zero” scenario would result in a temperature rise of 2.4 °C. The “2100 zero” scenario achieved a 4.1 °C increase, while the BAU reached about 5.2 °C. BECCS contributed to achieving zero-emission requirements while providing a limited contribution to energy supply. The findings indicate substantial future challenges for the management of forested land. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study estimates the effect of carbon pricing for CO 2 mitigation in China’s cement industry. The statistics and prediction show that cement production initially experienced accelerated growth and is now expected to plateau out over the next few years. The energy saving and carbon mitigation technologies considered in this estimation are at different adoption stages. Full technology diffusion is expected within 10–20 years, and the remaining technology mitigation potential stands at about 8.8% by 2025 and 10.2% by 2030. Nevertheless, attaching a price to carbon would have a limited effect. Reductions of 9.9 and 12.9 Mt-CO 2 might have been realised in 2015 under respective prices of 60 and 100 Yuan/t-CO 2 , compared to a non-pricing scenario. The reduction attributed to carbon pricing would be around 4.9 Mt-CO 2 in 2020 at both price levels, and around 70% of the mitigation may be at a marginal cost of 50 Yuan/t-CO 2 by 2020. The marginal cost for nearly 90% of the policy mitigation would be below 100 Yuan/t-CO 2 by 2030. This paper confirms the effectiveness of a command-and-control approach so far for energy saving in China’s cement industry and advises early introduction of a carbon pricing regime with consideration of policy interactions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change mitigation is a key issue in formulating global environmental policies. Energy production and consumption are the main sources of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in Europe. Energy consumption and energy-related GHG emissions from agriculture are an important concern for policymakers, as the agricultural activities should meet food security goals along with proper economic, environmental, and social impacts. Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) emission is the most significant among energy-related GHG emissions. This paper analyses the main drivers behind energy-related CO 2 emission across agricultural sectors of European countries. The analysis is based on aggregate data from the World Input-Output Database. The research explores two main directions. Firstly, Index Decomposition Analysis (IDA), facilitated by the Shapley index, is used to identify the main drivers of CO 2 emission. Secondly, the Slack-based Model (SBM) is applied to gauge the environmental efficiency of European agricultural sectors. By applying frontier techniques, we also derive the measures of environmental efficiency and shadow prices, thereby contributing to a discussion on CO 2 emission mitigation in agriculture. Therefore, the paper devises an integrated approach towards analysis of CO 2 emission based upon advanced decomposition and efficiency analysis models. The research covers eighteen European countries and the applied methodology decomposes contributions to CO 2 emission across of regions and factors. Results of IDA suggest that decreasing energy intensity is the main factor behind declines in CO 2 emission. According to the SBM, the lowest carbon shadow prices are observed in France, Finland, Sweden, Denmark, the Netherlands, Poland, and Belgium. These countries thus have the highest potential for reduction in CO 2 emission. The results imply that measures to increase energy efficiency are a more effective means to reduce CO 2 emissions than are changes in the fuel-mix. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Natural ventilation (NV) is a key sustainable solution for reducing the energy use in buildings, improving thermal comfort, and maintaining a healthy indoor environment. However, the energy savings and environmental benefits are affected greatly by ambient air pollution in China. Here we estimate the NV potential of all major Chinese cities based on weather, ambient air quality, building configuration, and newly constructed square footage of office buildings in the year of 2015. In general, little NV potential is observed in northern China during the winter and southern China during the summer. Kunming located in the Southwest China is the most weather-favorable city for natural ventilation, and reveals almost no loss due to air pollution. Building Energy Simulation (BES) is conducted to estimate the energy savings of natural ventilation in which ambient air pollution and total square footage at each city must be taken into account. Beijing, the capital city, displays limited per-square-meter saving potential due to the unfavorable weather and air quality for natural ventilation, but its largest total square footage of office buildings makes it become the city with the greatest energy saving opportunity in China. Our analysis shows that the aggregated energy savings potential of office buildings at 35 major Chinese cities is 112 GWh in 2015, even after allowing for a 43 GWh loss due to China’s serious air pollution issue especially in North China. 8–78% of the cooling energy consumption can be potentially reduced by natural ventilation depending on local weather and air quality. The findings here provide guidelines for improving current energy and environmental policies in China, and a direction for reforming building codes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study proposes a set of optimal emission taxes that could be used to fully internalize environmental externalities. Carbon fees are computed for low-income economies, lower-middle-income economies, upper-middle-income economies, high-income economies, China and the United States. Subsequently, the implementation of these emission taxes is evaluated under two different scenarios; one assuming abatement substitution and the other relaxing this assumption. Estimated damages and abatement from various sectors lie between 0.0003 to 0.021 and 0.001 to 0.012 lb per dollar output respectively. Optimal pollution taxes per dollar output range as high as 2.8% for heavy manufacturing in the high income countries, and as low as 0.01% in the service sectors of the low income countries. On the impacts of these taxes, the study produces evidence that, whether abatement substitution is present or not, production in low-income economies would be less adversely affected due to carbon taxes relative to high-income countries. In addition, the emissions taxes reduce environmental damages by nearly 50% in all regions. Worldwide welfare gains from internalizing negative externalities when no abatement substitution is present is about three times the welfare gains in the presence of abatement substitution. Although these results imply a sort of tradeoff between the economics of production and environment, improved environmental benefits due to carbon taxes seem to outweigh the deterioration in economic activities; and as such, welfare improves in general. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sustainability of the aviation industry, as any other industry, depends on the elasticity of demand for the product and profitability through minimising operating costs. Of paramount importance is assessing and understanding the interdependency and effects of environmentally optimised solutions and emission mitigation policies. This paper describes the development and application of assessment methodologies to better understand the effects of environmental taxation/energy policies aimed at environmental pollution reduction and the future potential economic impact they may have on the adaptation of “greener” novel technologies. These studies are undertaken using a Techno-economic Environmental Risk Assessment approach. The methodology demonstrated allows the assessment of the economic viability of new technologies compared to conventional technologies, for various CO 2 emission taxation and fuel price scenarios. It considers relative increases in acquisition price and maintenance costs. A study undertaken as a ‘proof of concept’ compares a Counter Rotating Open Rotor aircraft with a conventional aircraft for short range operations. It indicates that at current fuel price and with no carbon taxation, a highly fuel efficient technology, such as the one considered, could be rendered economically unviable. The work goes on to demonstrate that in comparison to the conventional aircraft, any economic benefits that may be accrued from improvement in fuel consumption through such a technology, may well be negated through increases in acquisition price and maintenance costs. The work further demonstrates that if policy makers want to direct the industry towards greener propulsion solutions, then an increase in CO 2 emission taxation may be appropriate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We illustrate the importance of disaggregating electricity generation when considering responses to environmental policies. We begin by reviewing various approaches to electric sector modelling in Computable General Equilibrium (CGE) models, and then clarify and expand upon the structure and calibration of the “technology bundle” approach. We also simulate the proposed U.S. Clean Power Plan and show how a disaggregate electricity sector can change results. Our simulations indicate that both the ability to switch between generation technologies and the manner of aggregation in electricity production are important for quantifying the economic costs of the plan. A model that does not consider the heterogeneity of generation technologies can possibly underestimate the size of the carbon price but overestimate the economic cost of mitigation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Renewable supply potentials are strongly dependent on spatial policies. • Spatial policy changes can unlock vast potentials of renewable energy. • Combining windfarms and ground-based photovoltaics is realistic and efficient. • Heat demand density is greatly influenced by buildings' spatial footprint. Spatially sensitive regional renewables' potentials are greatly influenced by existing land-use claims and related spatial and environmental policies. Similarly, heat particularly related to low-temperature demand applications in the built environment (BE) is highly spatially explicit. This study developed an analytical approach for a detailed spatial analysis of future solar PV, onshore wind, biomass, and geothermal and industrial waste heat potentials at a regional level and applied in the Dutch Province of Groningen. We included spatial policies, various spatial claims, and other land-use constraints in developing renewable scenarios for 2030 and 2050. We simultaneously considered major spatial claims and multiple renewable energy sources. Claims considered are the BE, agriculture, forest, nature, and network and energy infrastructure, with each connected to social, ecological, environmental, technical, economic, and policy-related constraints. Heat demand was further analyzed by creating highly granular demand density maps, comparing them with regional heat supply potential, and identifying the economic feasibility of heat networks. We analyzed the possibilities of combining multiple renewables on the same land. The 2050 renewable scenarios results ranged 2–66 PJ for solar PV and 0–48 PJ for onshore wind and biomass ranged 3.5–25 PJ for both 2030 and 2050. These large ranges of potentials show the significant impact of spatial constraints and underline the need for understanding how they shape future energy policies. The heat demand density map shows that future heat networks are feasible in large population centers. Our approach is pragmatic and replicable in other regions, subject to data availability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite the low-carbon environmental policies, coal is expected to remain a main source of energy in the coming decades. Therefore, efficient and environmentally friendly power systems are required. A design process based on the deterministic models and application of the safety factors leads to the equipment oversizing, hence fall in the efficiency and increase in the capital and operating costs. In this work, applicability of a non-intrusive stochastic methodology to determine the probability of the power plant equipment failure was investigated. This alternative approach to the power plant performance assessment employs approximation methods for the deterministic prediction of the key performance indicators, which are used to estimate reliability indices based on the uncertainty of the input to a process model of the coal-fired power plant. This study revealed that high reliability indices obtained in the analysis would lead to reduced application of conservative safety factors on the plant equipment, which should result in lower capital and operating cost, through a more reliable assessment of its performance state over its service time, and lead to the optimisation of its inspection and maintenance interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over the last few years concerns have increased about the energy mix in many countries. These concerns have been of greater magnitude for countries with a common energy regulation such as European Union (EU) member states. An important aspect to take into account when choosing a given energy mix is the efficiency involved in its generation. In this context, the present study analyzes the efficiency with which electricity and derived heat was produced in 25 EU member states over the last decade. This analysis considers not only the inputs and outputs involved but, more importantly, which undesirable by-products were generated during the production process, a relevant issue for EU climate policy. To this end, two nonparametric frontier models are applied: first, a Directional Distance Function (DDF), based on Briec’s (1997) [16] proposal and, second, a modified version of Tone’s (2001) [51] Slacks-Based Measure (SBM) model, both of which are especially appropriate in this particular context due to their treatment of undesirable outputs. Results are partly innovative since, with few exceptions, applications on this issue are relatively scarce. From a policy implications’ point of view, our achievements are also interesting because they reveal remarkable efficiency differences among EU countries: those countries from the latest EU enlargements account for the lowest efficiencies, with large opportunities for improvement in CO 2 abatement and primary energy saving. Results also show stable efficiencies along the evaluated period and, therefore, highlighting the need to further intensify the initiatives designed to harmonize environmental policies and identifying drivers for efficiency improvement turn out to be still key objectives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• We explored the evolution of consumers' intentions to purchase new energy vehicles. • Consumers' intentions to purchase NEVs first declined and then increased. • The inconsistency of consumers' purchasing intention become more evident over time. • Although consumers' cognition of the role of new energy vehicles in environmental governance is biased, it improves consumers' purchase intention at all stages. The decision-making process of car purchase tends to last relatively longer which makes consumers' intention to purchase new energy vehicle may affected by various factors and significantly change. For the first time, we divide consumers' intention to buy new energy vehicles into three stages, early intention and later intention in the decision-making process and future intention, and then extend the influencing relationships that have been verified from the study of future purchasing intention into these stages. This provides a new perspective for an in-depth understanding of the evolution process and the influence mechanism of purchasing new energy vehicles. Specifically, we collect a data set including 2,565 families with cars and then use the partial least squares structural equation model, to verify the theoretical model. The results show that our model has universal applicability to samples from different regions, indicating that it is stable and can be applied to other regions and countries. Consumers' willingness to purchase new energy vehicles shows a decreasing trend in the early stages and then rises in the subsequent stages. Although consumers' cognition of the role of new energy vehicles in environmental governance is biased, it improves consumers' purchase intention at all stages. Finally, some corresponding policy measures are put forward to promote the further development of new energy vehicles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The better to explore the regional characteristics of inter-provincial CO2 emissions and the rational distribution of the reduction of emission intensity reduction in China, this paper proposes an improved PSO-FCM clustering algorithm. This method can obtain the optimal cluster number and membership grade values by utilizing the global capacity of Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) on Fuzzy C-means (FCM). The clustering results of CO2 emissions indicate that the 30 provinces of China are divided into five clusters and each has its own significant characteristics. Compared with other clustering methods, the results of PSO-FCM are more explanatory. The most important indicators affecting regional emission characteristics are CO2 emission intensity and per capita emissions, whereas CO2 emission per unit of energy is not obvious in clustering. Furthermore, some policy recommendations on setting emission reduction targets according to the emission characteristics of different clusters are made. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This study aims to examine how mitigating CO2 through a carbon tax might affect the development goals of narrowing urban–rural gap and improving people’s living standard. In this study, the China Energy and Environmental Policy Analysis (CEEPA) model, a recursive dynamic computable general equilibrium model, was employed to simulate taxing carbon in China. Different carbon tax schemes were designed and their impacts on household disposable income, household welfare, economic growth, and CO2 emissions were compared. Results show that, given the current social security system that obviously favors urban households and the current investment-driven economic growth pattern, without complementary measures for protecting households, a carbon tax will not only widen the urban–rural gap, but also reduce the living standards of both urban and rural households. The negative impacts caused by carbon tax will enlarge over time. An ideal solution, no matter under an emission intensity goal or a total amount control goal, is to reduce indirect tax with carbon tax revenue, whilst increase the share rural households obtain in government transfers. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In this paper, per capita CO2 convergence among the EU-25 countries between 1920 and 2007 is analysed using the distribution dynamics approach. Furthermore, the analysis is complemented by investigating the asymptotic half-life of convergence, mobility indices and the continuous version of the ergodic distributions. The novel aspect of this work consists in the fact that it examines whether patterns could differ if weighted by either the population of each country or their economic sizes. The unweighted analysis indicates that the convergence patterns differ strongly before and after World War II, with more convergence being displayed after the seventies. Results of weighting both by population and by economic size show that convergence is much faster when these features are introduced into the model. Conclusions from this analysis are important for the environment policy adopted across the EU-25 countries. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Research in the field of NO x abatement has grown significantly in the past two decades. The general trend has been to develop new catalysts with complex materials in order to meet the stringent environmental regulations. This review discusses briefly about the different sources of NO x and its adverse effect on the ecosystem. The main portion of the review discusses the progress and development of various catalysts for NO x removal from exhaust by NO decomposition, NO reduction by CO or H2 or NH3 or hydrocarbons. The importance of understanding the mechanism of NO decomposition and reduction in presence of metal ion substituted catalysts is emphasized. Some conclusions are made on the various catalytic approaches to NO x abatement. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: To reduce carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions through thermal energy conservation, air-conditioned offices in the subtropics are recommended to operate within specified ranges of indoor temperature, relative humidity and air velocity. As thermal discomfort leads to productivity loss, some indoor environmental policies for air-conditioned offices in Hong Kong are investigated in this study with relation to thermal energy consumption, CO2 emissions from electricity use, and productivity loss due to thermal discomfort. Occupant thermal response is specifically considered as an adaptive factor in evaluating the energy consumption and productivity loss. The energy efficiency of an office is determined by the productivity which corresponds to the CO2 generated. The results found that a policy with little impact on occupant thermal comfort and worker productivity would improve the office efficiency while the one with excessive energy consumption reduction would result in a substantial productivity loss. This study is a useful reference source for evaluating an indoor thermal environmental policy regarding the energy consumption, CO2 emissions reduction, thermal comfort and productivity loss in air-conditioned offices in subtropical areas. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

• We develop a novel approach to capture policy-induced economy-wide rebound effects. • UK's electric car subsidy significantly underperforms due to the rebound effect. • We find a backfire effect for some environmental indicators. • The shift from petrol to electricity triggered additional demand for cheaper petrol. • Our approach is valuable to determine environmentally-optimal policy configurations. Environmental policies often underperform due to so-called rebound effects, namely behavioural and systemic responses to technical change leading to additional consumption and environmental damage. While evidence of rebound is abundant, studies generally focus on technical changes that are neither associated with specific technologies nor their production costs, making it difficult to connect these changes with the policies governing them. To overcome this limitation, this study proposes to combine a technology-rich model based on life cycle assessment and a behaviour-optimising model for the global economy based on computable general equilibrium modelling. This approach allows to quantify policy-induced economy-wide rebound effects for four relevant environmental impacts: climate change, acidification, photochemical ozone formation, and particulate matter. We apply this approach to evaluate the effectiveness of the United Kingdom's subsidy on electric cars. The results show notable economy-wide rebound effects associated with this subsidy: over or close to 100% (no environmental benefits) for acidification and particulate matter impacts, and a lower, yet notable, magnitude for climate change (~20–50%) and photochemical ozone formation (~30–80%) impacts. The results also show the important role of macro-economic effects from price changes, particularly how the shift from petrol to electricity triggered additional demand for cheaper petrol. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the early stages of industrialization, developed nations such as the United States did not foresee the extensive damage that would be done to the global environment by continued reliance on fossil fuels. As environmentally-friendly technologies become more feasible, efforts are being made to find ways to replace fossil fuels with more environmentally-friendly alternatives. However, industrialized countries have faced difficulties in converting their already-established infrastructures due to the time, effort, and cost involved. Implementing renewable-energy technologies in developing countries in the early stages of industrialization will avoid these obstacles. China and India are among the most populous and rapidly-developing countries. Therefore, employing renewable energy resources in these regions will have significant environmental and economic benefits and provide a model for other countries to follow. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Due to several reasons, ranging from environmental concerns to security of energy supplies, almost every country in the OECD implemented a host of energy efficiency policies. Although each government made its choice as to which kind of measures to take in order to deal with this subject, as well as how they would implement them, all of the analyzed programs fit into five basic categories, given below: (1) restrictive regulations, (2) information to the public, (3) creation of market asymmetries, (4) funding/loans programs and (5) state capital/private capital partnerships. Class 1 programs rely on restrictive legislation in order to ensure that manufactured/marketed products are in accordance with energy-efficiency performance standards. Class 2 initiatives aim at raising public awareness of energy-efficiency issues in order to achieve better market penetration of energy-efficient technologies, adoption of demand-side management and other desirable change in lifestyles and consumer behaviour. Class 3 measures work by tipping the scale in favour of energy-efficient technologies and appliances, either by offsetting economic disadvantages they might initially present or by circumventing any other structural barrier to their adoption/purchasing. Class 4 policies refer to purchasers and energy consumers that otherwise would not be able to make use of energy-efficient technologies because of their high initial costs. The Government gives funding or loans in order to offset this cost. Most of the partnerships in class 5 are research partnerships in which governmental departments set research goals and choose private research projects for financial funding through competitive solicitation processes. Other initiatives under this classification are free-of-charge state consultancy services. There are particular programs that fall into more than one of those ‘families’. Actually, initiatives in the third group are frequently a combination of measures from the first and second groups. Additionally, policies in class 5 are sometimes a mix of class 4 (funding) and 2 (information) measures. A comparative table will be assembled, where: (1) Each country will have its energy-efficiency policies classified as a regulatory program, informative campaign, creation of market asymmetry, funding/loan or partnership, with notes regarding overlapping of classes when it happens. Data will be tabulated with basic policy categories as columns; program names being entered in the proper places for their respective countries. (2) Programs will be described in brief, having their present results summarized or prognostics being given where current data only allow for that (data available August 2001). (3) Programs will be comparatively analyzed in each of the five basic policy categories. The overarching goal of this comparative table is to provide an initial basis for an applicability analysis of such policies to South America, being specifically aimed at the Brazilian energetic sector. It is part of a greater effort to achieve efficient energy use in Brazil. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The liberalisation of electric-power markets has mixed implications for the upkeep of environmental policies. A further regulatory completion of the liberalisation of electric-power markets within a sound social-economic and sustainability setting requires steps that incite the introduction of capacity-scarcity signals (e.g. ToD pricing) in the retail-pricing structure. As a consequence, efforts for environmentally-benign conversion options and energy efficiency will go up. A great challenge connected with this step is the rearrangement of risk-assessment practices and the handling of risks. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Regulatory control forms the bedrock of the environmental policies of many countries. Whilst this interventionist approach can ensure a certain minimum standard would be achieved, far greater results can be achieved if it is augmented by a voluntary assessment-scheme. The benefits of having both approaches are explored in the paper with reference to the building energy codes and a voluntary building environmental-performance assessment scheme HK-BEAM, both of which are being implemented in Hong Kong. Quantification of the possible range of energy saving was based on the design characteristics of 22 commercial buildings in Hong Kong. The need for and the benefits of using the energy assessments within HK-BEAM as an alternative compliance route to the building energy codes are confirmed and the compliance criteria are established. The potential energy-saving through the use of the regulatory and the voluntary-based approaches were estimated to be from about 8% to more than 30%. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

• The decision-making framework streamlines emission-neutral microgrid deployment. • A novel price-based demand shifting technique is developed to contribute energy savings. • A decomposition approach is employed to decouple the investment and operation problems. • Challenges and solution schemes for emission-neutral microgrids are discussed. • Financial feasibility of microgrid projects with green resources is explored and verified. Energy and global climate change crises are correlated issues since energy generation currently contributes to nearly 40% of global greenhouse gas emissions, and inevitably the escalating energy demand realization exacerbates the ongoing undesirable circumstances. As a viable solution against the concerns above, microgrid deployments with low-emission on-site resources have been receiving increasing attention from power decision-makers. Thus, this study scrutinizes the technical and financial sustainability of deploying a net-zero emission multi-carrier microgrid and determines the optimal generation configurations. Besides, the proposed emission-neutral multi-carrier microgrid model provides insights into the economic prominence of renewable energy incentives together with regulations for the short-term deployment of green resources. The objective of the proposed model is to minimize the multi-carrier microgrid deployment costs associated with the investment, operation, maintenance, energy demand shifting, monthly peak demand charge, emission, and reliability. Furthermore, load prioritization and a novel demand shifting of demand response schemes are propounded to maintain at least the continuous flow of energy for high-prioritized loads. The customer multi-carrier microgrid deployment problem is disintegrated into an investment master problem and an operation subproblem. The results indicate that notable electrical peak mitigation of about 7–23% is procured by employing the demand response scheme. Furthermore, the sensitivity analysis illustrates that renewable penetration of 30% along with dispatchable resources is required to procure the targeted share of green resources within microgrids. Finally, the economic and environmental merits of the proposed emission-neutral multi-carrier microgrid are ensured with savings and the discounted payback period of 131% and 3.977 years, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The new tax schedule of gas slightly reduces emissions but raises the tax revenue. • The new tax schedule of vehicle reduces vehicle fleet but not emissions. • The Euro 6 cars and Euro 4 buses and PUJs significantly improve public health. • The improved accessibility reduces energy demand but not pollutant emissions. • All the low carbon scenarios should be integrated to achieve sustainable mobility. An increase in private vehicle fleet and usage exacerbates the overuse of petroleum products, air quality degradation, and public health risks, among other drawbacks. This study investigated the energy and environmental benefits for private passenger vehicles under various scenarios in Metro Manila, the Philippines. The findings are informative to design policy implications for energy and environmental benefits. The study applied the Gaussian copula-based multinomial logit (MNL)-linear regression to develop the household vehicle ownership and energy consumption model using the disaggregated data of 1,795 households collected in 2017. The simulated vehicle fleet and energy consumption were then adopted to extrapolate energy demand, emissions, and public health risks for a 2010–2050 horizon using the bottom-up approach. Under the baseline scenario, the energy demand and carbon dioxide (CO 2) emissions will reach 5.45 million tonnes of oil equivalent (Mtoe) and 16.93 million tonnes (Mt) in 2050, respectively. The amounts of hydrocarbon (HC), carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur dioxide (SO 2), nitrogen oxides (NO X), particulate matter 10 (PM 10) and particulate matter 2.5 (PM 2.5) emissions, and economic loss of health risks will be 6,214 tonnes (t), 62,136 t, 536 t, 10,550 t, 1,348 t, 996 t, and 237 Million USD, respectively, under the baseline scenario in 2050. Improvement of accessibility significantly reduces energy demand and CO 2 emissions. Introduction of Euro 6 cars and Euro 4 buses and Public Utility Jeepneys noticeably improves public health. The new tax schedules on gas and vehicle maximize the tax revenue. The integration of all the mentioned alternatives can achieve sustainable mobility and urbanization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• A practical multi-agent problem in the automobile industry is defined. • A comprehensive approach including System Dynamics and game theory is provided. • Energy efficiency, environmental awareness, and social welfare are considered. • A function for the average of vehicle kilometers traveled in a unit of time is suggested. • Several managerial insights for both manufacturers and governments are presented. This paper looks at the effects that environmental policies have on car manufacturers. A standing problem for car manufacturers is determining both a car's price and its level of energy efficiency. The South Korean government has sustainable goals that encompass saving energy, seeking revenue, and advancing social welfare. This study highlights four decision variables in two groups for the government. The government determines the optimal value of each goal, while maintaining a threshold for the two other goals as constraints. The four decision variables are determining the car sales tax, determining the fuel tax, determining the cost of educating the public about environmental awareness, and determining the percentage of government's cooperation in the manufacturer's research and development expenditure. For the purpose of this study, a new function, average of vehicle kilometer traveled in a unit of time (AVKT), is suggested for calculating the average distance driven by a car over a given period of time, based on the cost of fuel, the car's energy efficiency, the driver's environmental awareness quotient, and the rebound effect. This newly defined multi-agent problem is solved by looking at the structure of the Stackelberg game, and equilibrium solutions are offered by implementing the backward induction procedure. By considering demand and profit for fuel, this study offers the most efficient goals and strategies for both car manufacturers and fuel producers alike. Finally, this study offers several results and insights. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]