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As of July 2017, the emissions type-approval of light-duty vehicles in Europe is based on the Worldwide Harmonized Light-duty vehicles Test Procedure (WLTP), introduced to replace the old and outdated New European Driving Cycle (NEDC) test procedure. Since some elements of the European Legislation are still based on the NEDC (2020 CO 2 emission targets, vehicle labelling, national vehicle taxation policies, etc.) in order to allow sufficient lead time to vehicle manufacturers and national authorities to adapt to the new procedure, a simulation-based approach was chosen to calculate CO 2 emissions and fuel consumption according to the NEDC regime in the period 2017–2020. To achieve this objective without significantly increasing the cost and duration of the certification procedure, existing regulation foresees that vehicles are tested over the WLTP for CO 2 emissions, the test results are used as input in a simulation model that then calculates the corresponding CO 2 according to the NEDC test protocol. A dedicated vehicle simulation model (CO 2 MPAS) was developed for the purpose and is currently used for the type-approval of new vehicles in Europe. The development specifications of CO 2 MPAS were challenging, as it had to be highly accurate, exhibit fast operation, and function with a limited number of input data. This paper presents the development principles and process followed, details of the physical models employed in CO 2 MPAS, and provides information regarding its accuracy, validity and in use operation. CO 2 MPAS achieves low errors in the prediction of the NEDC cycle that in the controlled sample used for its development are of the order of 1% with a standard deviation of 3%, while the respective in-use numbers are of the order of 1.5% and 5%. In parallel, random sampling and testing of a 10% of the type-approved vehicles also occurs in order to guarantee the quality of the CO 2 MPAS results and the validity of the process. It is concluded that CO 2 MPAS can be used to accurately estimate emissions of conventional vehicles within a ±4% accuracy range, even when limited input data are available. In addition, the in-use data analyzed suggest that the use of the tool enables the certification of about 2/3 of the new vehicle models without the need of additional experimental tests. This is an important achievement as it reduces the costs and time necessary to certify light-duty vehicle CO 2 emissions during the transitional period. Finally, it can be concluded that the use of CO 2 MPAS does not affect the declared CO 2 emissions of vehicles over NEDC conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates how the European electricity and heating system is impacted when medium-scale energy communities (ECs) are developed widely across Europe. We study the response on the capacity expansion of the cross-border transmission and national generation and storage within the European electricity and heating system with and without ECs in selected European countries. The representation of ECs has a special focus on flexibility, and we analyze the difference between flexibility responses by ECs towards local versus global cost minimization. Results show that EC development decreases total electricity and heating system costs on the transition towards a decarbonized European system in line with the 1.5 °C target, and less generation and storage capacity expansion is needed on a national scale to achieve climate targets. We also identify a conflict of interest between optimizing EC flexibility towards local cost minimization versus European cost minimization. • We study investments in the European energy market with energy community roll-out. • We compare flexibility responses with local versus European perspective. • Energy communities partly replace centralized generation and storage capacity. • Energy community roll-out shifts investments from onshore to offshore wind. • There is conflicting interest between local and European flexibility utilization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Stakeholders see great potential in PEDs for energy poverty reduction. • Energy poverty mitigation needs to be included in PEDs from the onset. • PED replication can synergistically address both decarbonization and energy poverty mitigation. • Increasing levels of energy poverty makes PEDs more financially viable as mitigation tools. • More consideration needs to be given to the social dimension in decisions on new PED creation. 100 Positive Energy Districts (PEDs) are to be created in Europe by 2025, with a stated goal of urban decarbonization. These are highly energy efficient residential urban areas, powered entirely through renewables. PED creation is to be guided by principles of quality of life, sustainability, and inclusiveness (specifically focusing on affordability and energy poverty prevention). Although there is research into the decarbonization aspects of PEDs, there has been little focus on the guiding principles, and their potential to reduce energy vulnerability. Using energy vulnerability factors and an energy justice framework, this article examines how the topic of energy vulnerability mitigation is perceived by professional PED stakeholders. Stakeholders from multiple countries were interviewed in order to determine how and to what extent they approached the topic of inclusivity and energy vulnerability. The contribution of this paper to academic research is in helping to frame energy vulnerability in European smart city urban areas, focusing on the perceptions of key stakeholders. This contributes to research on the identification and evaluation of innovations such as PEDs which offer a potential model for an inclusive transition. Furthermore, this article offers a contribution for policymakers, informing PED replication policies with a focus on the synergistic aims of decarbonization and energy vulnerability mitigation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Involving residential actors in the energy transition is crucial for its success. Local energy generation, consumption and trading are identified as desirable forms of involvement, especially in energy communities. The potentials for energy communities in the residential building stock are high but are largely untapped in multi-family buildings. In many countries, rapidly evolving legal frameworks aim at overcoming related barriers, e.g. ownership structures, principal–agent problems and system complexity. But academic literature is scarce regarding the techno-economic and environmental implications of such complex frameworks. This paper develops a mixed-integer linear program (MILP) optimisation model for assessing the implementation of multi-energy systems in an energy community in multi-family buildings with a special distinction between investor and user; the model is applied to the German Tenant Electricity Law. Based on hourly demands from appliances, heating and electric vehicles, the optimal energy system layout and dispatch are determined. The results contain a rich set of performance indicators that demonstrate how the legal framework affects the technologies' interdependencies and economic viability of energy communities with multi-energy systems. Certain economic technology combinations may fail to support national emissions mitigation goals and lead to lock-ins in Europe's largest residential building stock. The subsidies do not lead to the utilisation of a battery storage. Despite this, self-sufficiency ratios of more than 90% are observable for systems with combined heat and power plants and heat pumps. Social C O 2 mitigation costs range between 147.5–272.8 € / t CO 2 . Finally, the results show the strong influence of the heat demand on the system layout. • System optimisation of distinct operators and consumers in multi-family buildings. • Inclusion of Tenant Electricity Law leads to complex investment and dispatch decisions. • Highest profitability combining photovoltaic, combined heat and power and heat pump. • Combined heat and power is favoured, but profits depend on building's heating demand. • Legislation incentivises energy communities but may offset national CO 2 mitigation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]