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ABSTRACT Electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) is nowadays widely used in archaeological prospection. This study deals with an approach to make ERT more time‐efficient and flexible. It is based on calculating arbitrary 4‐point configurations by superposition of multiple pole–pole measurements. Investigating its applicability for archaeological purposes is the objective of this work. To do so, a synthetic study and a case study are conducted to gain insights into effects of nonideal field conditions, noise susceptibility and other challenges during processing and interpretation. Remains of an early modern manor in Noer served as an exemplary object of investigation. Their high resistivity contrast in relation to the surrounding soil makes them ideal for a functionality test. Beforehand, ground penetrating radar measurements were carried out to constrain the forward model used in the synthetic study. It turns out that the pole–pole conversion is well applicable for archaeological prospection under some conditions. The synthetic study shows that the approach is relatively prone to systematic errors. Therefore, it is recommended to locate the external electrodes at a distance of at least 0.7 times (preferably 1.7 times) the maximum internal electrode spacing from the area of investigation. Other error sources like nonideal electrode coupling must be excluded to keep relative noise levels below 1%. The pole–pole conversion can be considered reliable for absolute noise levels below 0.3 mV. Therefore, an A/D converter resolution of, for example, 16‐bit should be sufficient for a dynamic range of ±10 V. If all conditions are met, the pole–pole conversion has a great potential to make ERT more time‐efficient (up to 50%, depending on configuration sets) and flexible, as it allows to calculate nearly every arbitrary 4‐point configuration in the given setup. Combined with optimization approaches like the ‘Compare R’ method, data sets can also be adapted for specific (archaeological) questions or conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A survey was conducted to investigate buried archaeological remains at Tingambato, a pre‐Tarascan classic‐epiclassic archaeological site located in the north‐central part of the State of Michoacán in western Mexico, using ground‐penetrating radar (GPR) and electrical resistivity tomography (ERT). The aim of this study was to detect the foundations (ancient buried walls) and cavities (tombs), define the geometry of the foundations and correlate construction style and depth with relative chronological buried structures. The survey was carried out on two grids of 15 m × 37 m (Zona Verde) and 10.25 m × 36.5 m (Ballgame court), using a 200 MHz antenna for GPR and Schlumberger‐Wenner arrays for ERT. GPR 3D acquisition was carried out along parallel lines spaced 0.25 m apart in a single direction. In the first area, considering the geometric shape found at a depth of 1.35 m, we can assume the existence of a buried structure, probably wall remains. In the second area, a very diffractive zone coincides with a resistive anomaly (> 2000 ohm·m). In order to refine the GPR results, synthetic modelling and a comparison with real traces were carried out. The 1D GPR modelling allows us to precise the presence of a cavity with a rectangular cross section. Since the type of volcaniclastic avalanche deposits of the subsoil do not allow the formation of cavities of that size, we infer that it may be the remains of a tomb or an anthropogenic cavity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A geophysical exploration employing ground‐penetrating radar (GPR) and electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) was conducted at the Western Cemetery, Giza, Egypt, in 2021–23 by a joint research team of Higashi Nippon International University, Tohoku University and the National Research Institute of Astronomy and Geophysics (NRIAG), Helwan, Egypt. We believe we found an anomaly: a combination of a shallow structure connected to a deeper structure. The shallow structure, which is L‐shaped in the horizontal plane, 10 m by 10 m, was clearly imaged by GPR. It seems to have been filled with sand, which means it was backfilled after it was constructed. It may have been an entrance to the deeper structure. Its depth is of up to 2 m, measured from the ground surface. Below this structure, ERT reveals a highly electrically resistive anomaly, which extends over an area of about 10 m by 10 m. The depth of the structure is about 5–10 m below the surface. Electrically resistive material in a sand dune can be a mixture of sand and gravel, including sparse spacing or air voids within it. Neither GPR nor ERT could identify the properties of the anomaly. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper demonstrates the utility of ground‐penetrating radar (GPR) to inform forensic archaeology recovery efforts of missing service members from historic conflict‐related aircraft crash sites. This approach is becoming more common and improving recovery strategies by pinpointing potential subsurface anomalies prior to excavation. Two examples of recovery efforts at WWII aircraft crash sites are presented, revealing the diversity of landscape upheaval signatures that result from aircraft impacts. In both situations, the GPR successfully located feature boundaries and identified aviation impacturbation. The landscape signature varied in both cases due to factors including the trajectory and velocity of the aircraft crash and the topography of the impacted landscape. Notably, a 'halo' effect was identified in association with one crash site, revealing the force of the impact on sandy soils. Recognition of these anthropogenic signals is important to promote effective recovery strategies, thus saving time, labour and funds, particularly in historic sites where postincident taphonomic conditions have severely altered the morphology of the landscape. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Contrasts in electromagnetic properties between the target feature and surrounding soil are of importance for detection of archaeological features with Ground Penetrating Radar. These vary because of changing climatic conditions and soil type and are currently poorly understood. Long‐term in situ monitoring of apparent relative dielectric permittivity, bulk electrical conductivity and soil temperature over two archaeological ditch features on sites with different soil types (one clay and one free draining) was employed to understand the detection dynamics and processes by which these properties change over time. Results were correlated with geotechnical properties of the soil for both archaeological ditchfills and the surrounding natural soil matrix and previously derived laboratory relationships between water content, temperature and geophysical properties to find the timing and reasons for the optimum geophysical contrasts. Monitoring included two distinct, relatively stable periods: one wet and one dry. In contrast to previous perception that there are significant differences in infiltration between the ditch and surrounding natural soil, time‐lagged correlation analysis showed no significant differences in infiltration speed. The key differences between archaeological and natural soils were the amount of water held in a saturated state, the rates at which the different soils dried and the temperature. Thus, the optimum time for surveys was after a sustained period of several days of hot (>15°C) weather, which accentuates both water content and temperature contrasts. However, on freely draining sites that had a greater difference in the soil texture and therefore water holding capacity between the archaeological and natural soils, the timing is less critical. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An extensive magnetic survey has been carried out on a large part of the Roman and late antique city of Pollentia (Alcúdia, Mallorca, Spain), combined with ground penetrating radar (GPR) and electric resistivity imaging (ER Imaging) to obtain data for a better understanding of the ancient city. For magnetic measurements, the 7‐probe fluxgate gradiometer array was used. The GPR data were collected by means of a system equipped with two dual‐frequency antenna boxes of 200 and 600 MHz, respectively. The geophysical data provide some new insights into the layout of the city, with the identification of numerous structures in areas that are still unexplored by archaeological investigation. The results fill the gap of previous partial geophysical surveys and show an interesting, unseen image of ancient Pollentia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We surveyed in detail the Chalcolithic lithic workshop Fofanovo XIII an East Fennoscandian region by ground‐penetrating radar (GPR). A high‐frequency antenna unit was applied to map small‐scale features, mainly waste flakes. To substantiate the efficiency of the GPR technique, we performed a primary analysis of a set of equivalent models in a sandbox. The laboratory‐scale GPR investigation highlights differences in GPR patterns depending on the spatial arrangement of small features and supports the further interpretation of real‐life data. The GPR survey in the field covered 2200 m2, revealing areas with a high density of artefacts in the cultural layer and locating individual structural elements of the Fofanovo XIII archaeological site. We suggested using microdebitage samples from manual probing to verify the detected anomalous values of GPR attributes. The results point to a significant correlation between microdebitage and the envelope peak amplitude of the echo signal. Ultimately, our study confirmed the cultural layer in the Fofanovo XIII workshop site to be rich in lithic production wastes, indicating it was a place of mass‐scale production of lithic chopping tools. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In ground penetrating radar (GPR) surveys of African‐American cemeteries suspected to contain unmarked graves, determining the proficiency of a new GPR practitioner is vital and perhaps even more fundamental than that of the GPR hardware, deployment configuration and software. Proficiency may be defined as the practitioner's true‐positive, true‐negative, false‐positive (i.e., false alarms) and false‐negative (i.e., misses) percentages. We embarked on this research as a means to improve our own proficiency in unmarked grave detection and to develop an algorithm by which to improve the proficiency of any new GPR practitioner. After surveying the Salem Cemetery in Brazos County, TX, and the Old Danville‐Shepherd Hill Cemetery in Montgomery County, TX, we first classified subsurface targets based on in‐field, visual inspection of the real‐time, onscreen, unprocessed (except for an automatic gain control) GPR B‐scans. We then developed a proxy for ground‐truthing that allowed us to calculate the proficiency of the in‐field classifications. From this proxy, we established a quantitative prevalence threshold for identifying or rejecting a subsurface object as a target of interest. Its quantitative nature allowed us to quantitatively control and adjust that threshold, a threshold we set at 70% likely to be to a specific target of interest. We show that our classification accuracy increased from 66.2% at the Salem Cemetery to 75.0% at the Old Danville‐Shepherd Hill Cemetery and, through use of diagnostic evaluations originally developed for medical imaging and herein applied to geophysics, showed that the accuracy improved due to increases in true‐negative classifications, that is, in examining real‐time, onscreen, mostly unprocessed GPR B‐scans, discerning a potential target and correctly concluding it was not an unmarked grave. This research outlines the procedure we developed to measure the proficiency of a new GPR practitioner. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Volubilis was founded in the second century B.C. and was one of the largest cities on the fringe of the Roman Empire. In 1997, it was listed as a world cultural heritage site by United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and is one of the most important archaeological sites of Morocco. Volubilis is renowned for its large number of mosaic floors. Among the major mosaics of Volubilis, and undoubtedly the most remarkable ones given their aesthetic and the variety of themes they hold, are found in the house of Venus. These mosaics have been restored between the 1940s and 1950s, but unfortunately, most of these restorations are past due or nearing their ends. Today, the mosaic floors are becoming unleveled, fractured and separated from their surrounding walls. These deteriorations can be triggered by many factors including inadequate foundation, a clayey soil beneath it sensitive to moisture and the heaving of the thin concrete layer due to the expansion of the soil. The corrosion of the reinforcing bars within these concrete slabs is enabling these deformations as well. The objective of this study is to examine the causes of the mosaics' deterioration by integrating three techniques including a laser level survey, photogrammetry using a small unmanned aircraft vehicles (UAV) and ground‐penetrating radar. The methodology adopted herein can generate documentation that can be used during the preparation and decision making prior to any restoration. The restoration should not only be focused on the visible tesserae on the surface but must also consider the entire layer of the mosaics. These techniques were applied to several mosaics in Volubilis, yet only two mosaics within the house of Venus were selected for this study, and the following findings were accomplished: (1) Void spaces were found beneath the mosaic floors, (2) presence of sinking and heaving of concrete slabs and (3) potential corrosion of rebars. The three methods used in this study were in perfect concurrence in showing how the settling of the concrete slab was directly related to the deteriorations visible on the mosaic surface. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) survey was conducted to detect historic unmarked graves from the period of the Civil War (1861–1865) at the Fairlawn Cemetery in Stillwater, Oklahoma. The GPR survey at the Fairlawn Cemetery will help preserve the unmarked historic graves if they exist or clear sections of the cemetery for possible expansion. GPR detection of historic graves are often a challenge as these graves are made of wooden boxes, bones and coffins, with no metal caskets or concrete burial vaults. It was even more challenging to detect unmarked graves in this study as the cemetery is covered with iron‐rich silty clay soil, which attenuates the GPR signals. We conducted the GPR survey along a grid consisting of 44 parallel 30‐m‐long profiles spaced at 50‐cm intervals using the 400‐MHz antenna. The acquired GPR data were processed as 2D profiles and produced a pseudo‐3D GPR volume to resolve the unmarked graves. Multiple features extracted from the pseudo‐3D volume at depths ranging from 0.7 to 1.3 m aligned along three north–south rows. Based on the dimensions, orientation, distribution and depth of burial of the anomalous features relative to the recent graves, we interpreted these features as unmarked graves. This study has demonstrated the GPR as an effective non‐invasive technique in detecting historical unmarked graves that contain no metal caskets or concrete burial vaults. This work will contribute not only to the science of historical archaeology but also to prehistorical archaeology, as caskets were not typically part of the prehistorical burials, and the modern‐day archaeology, particularly in the cases of mass graves in recent conflicts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Until recently, evidence of Neanderthal cave use in the Algarve (Southern Portugal) came only from the site of Ibn Ammar. Over the last couple of years, archaeological excavations inside another cave, Gruta da Companheira, yielded Mousterian stone tools associated with possible human fossils. The discovery of this assemblage is groundbreaking because it may contribute to enlighten the Neanderthal/cave relationship and explain the dearth of similar sites in the Algarve. Gruta da Companheira, however, is a complex karst system, which was partly destroyed during its accidental discovery. As result, the original entrance of the cave remains unknown, and it is unclear how sediments, archaeological materials and Neanderthals accessed the site. To tackle these issues, we combined geomorphological observations with speleological, Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) and Ground‐Penetrating Radar (GPR) prospections. Our data indicate that Gruta da Companheira was probably accessed from the hilltop through a sub‐vertical entrance. Additionally, our results suggest the existence of yet unexplored shallower cavities connected with the already known passages of Gruta da Companheira. These results will guide the opening of new excavation areas at the site. The limestone bedrock hosting Gruta da Companheira has been extensively dissolved by karst processes. Therefore, it is necessary to focus future research on the cave infillings to clarify whether Neanderthals exploited the cave's inner chambers or alternatively limited their occupations to the hilltop and geogenic processes reworked their materials into the endokarst system shortly after their stays. The deep karstification and partial collapse of the hill hosting Gruta da Companheira are common in limestone outcrops that occur throughout the Western Algarve. Poor visibility and poor accessibility of this karst area, densely covered with shrubby vegetation, are factors that need to be considered when addressing the scarcity of Middle Palaeolithic cave sites in this region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Monte Torretta (Pietragalla, PZ) represents one of the most interesting and less known settlements of ancient Lucania. The site was investigated in the last 50 years by several archaeological activities, but no result has been published so far. In order to study and disseminate the archaeological value of the site, the Université Paris 1 Panthéon‐Sorbonne and the Humboldt‐Universität zu Berlin has established the joint Pietragalla Project. The project is based on a multidisciplinary approach, which aims at studying the settlement and at recovering the lost information obtained by the previous archaeological works. The first geophysical activities conducted on the site offer important results, which increase the knowledge of the site and will help the archaeologists in their future investigation. Through the comparison and integration of different geophysical methodologies, including ground penetrating radar, electrical resistivity tomography and geomagnetic measurements, various information was obtained in proximity of the fortification walls and the two main gates of the site. Moreover, geological and geomorphological interpretations highlighted important information on the archaeological site. The obtained results show the importance of geophysical activities in a context strongly damaged by rural activities of the last century. From an archaeological point of view, the geophysical surveys conducted in 2017 and 2018 show a dense building activity within the area enclosed by the walls. Thanks to these results, we are now able to understand the settlement pattern in the longue durée, at the least for the western part of the infra‐muros area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this article we present the results of a geomorphological and geophysical investigation carried out in the Regional Park of Matera Murgia, also known as Park of the Rupestrian Churches (world site protected by UNESCO), in Basilicata region, southern Italy. The aim of this investigation is to support the scheduled restoration works in some rupestrian historical sites and the safety of the tourist route that connects the churches along the eastern side of Gravina river valley. In particular, a ground penetrating radar (GPR) prospection was conducted on frescoed surfaces in two rupestrian churches permitting the detection of different kinds of problems affecting the fresco surfaces, such as lesions and efflorescence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The renovation project of the historic Branciforte Palace (16th–17th century) in Palermo (Italy) was owned by the Banco di Sicilia Foundation, with the aim for it to become a multi‐purpose centre for the promotion of exhibitions and cultural events. In the context of the restoration work, a multi‐methodological and non‐invasive geophysical study has been carried out. The seismic characterization of the foundation soils was obtained by means of joint interpretations of a vertical seismic profile (VSP), multichannel analysis of surface waves (MASW) and horizontal to vertical spectral ratio (HVSR) microtremor analysis. The mutually constrained inversion of seismic surveys carried out with different techniques made it possible to obtain a robust interpretation of the foundation soils. Moreover, indoor geophysical surveys have been carried out to identify critical issues in the state of conservation of the floors and wall structures. In particular ground penetrating radar (GPR) profiles and an electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) have been carried out on the floor of the stable of the Palace, to evaluate in detail the state of consolidation of the foundation soil, in correspondence of a double row of marble columns, some of which were affected by differential subsidence. The joint interpretation allowed to generate a three‐dimensional (3D) model of the foundation's subsoil, highlighting the irregular surface of the foundation rock and to identify the main structural voids responsible for subsidence. Furthermore, some supporting columns have been investigated by means of ultrasonic tomography (UST) to verify their state of degradation. Finally, infrared thermography (IRT) images of the internal and external walls and of the vaults highlighted differences in the type of masonry and in the state of the plaster. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objects of forensic investigations vary from illegally buried weapons and explosives, landmines and improvised explosive devices, drugs and weapons caches to clandestine graves of murder victims and mass genocide graves, environmental crime. Illegal excavations represent one of the main risks which affect the archaeological heritage all over the world. They cause a massive loss of artefacts but also, and above all, a loss of the cultural context, which makes the subsequent interpretation of archaeological remains very difficult. Various techniques are available for forensic crime search teams. These techniques allow for the detection of a hidden object successfully. Near‐surface geophysical search methods have been dominated by ground‐penetrating radar (GPR) but recently other techniques, such as electrical resistivity, magnetometric, time domain reflection have become more common. The geophysical investigation was required to investigate the presence of illegal looting in an area located 1 km north from the archaeological park of Pompeii. For this purpose combined GPR and electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) were used. Results reveal the presence of an illegal tunnel and offered the opportunity to investigate such areas not previously systematically documented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article deals with a geophysical experimental activity carried out in the Maxentius Complex, an archaeological site located in Rome, Italy. The objective of this study was to evaluate the feasibility of ground penetrating radar (GPR) for the structural detailing of buried roman baths structures. As a result, GPR allowed to confirm the literature‐based information, i.e. to precisely locate the tanks of the thermal area. Their presence was already known through previous excavation but then buried and no longer visible. In addition, the tomographic analysis highlighted the presence of two further tanks, thereby suggesting the possibility of further rooms to be located close to the known ones. This assumption was also confirmed by tomographic analysis, which stressed out a wall pattern that seems to suggest the presence of further rooms in the top‐right side of the area. In general terms, GPR demonstrated a great applicability to archaeological purposes, despite the reliability and productivity of the data interpretation is strongly influenced by the expertise of both the geophysicists and the archaeologists involved. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ground penetrating radar (GPR) is a powerful non‐destructive investigation tool widely used in archaeology. Its capabilities are greatly enhanced when it is operated in combination with a terrestrial laser scanner. This article reports on the radar investigation of the floor of Palazzo Vecchio's Great Hall. This monumental hall has been decorated by the most prominent artists of Italian Renaissance and it has radically changed at least twice since the 15th century. The aim of this investigation is to find features inside and under the floor that can contribute to a better reconstruction of the history of this monument. The main findings of this prospection have been the detection of a transversal girder not known on the south side of the Great Hall and a hemicycle structure under the floor. Both are probably remains of the works for adapting the hall to be used as the National Parliament of Italy between 1865 and 1870. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Prehistoric mines are often too large and too deep for conventional archaeological excavations. Non‐destructive and minimally invasive methods of prospection can help to overcome these limits. Our case study of a Late Bronze Age opencast mine (ca. 1050 to 780 BC) shows the potential of geophysical prospection methods combined with core drillings. For the reconstruction of this mine, we combined electrical resistivity and induced polarization (IP) tomography, seismic refraction tomography (SRT) and ground penetrating radar (GPR). The geophysical data were collected based on an orthogonal grid of 10 longitudinal and transverse profiles, laid out over an area of ~330 × 300 m. The profiles allowed a three‐dimensional interpolation of the geological units, the mining dumps, the mining areas and the residual mineralization. Additionally, two deep cores were drilled to ground‐truth the geophysical prospection results. They provided information about the stratification at intersections of the measurement grid, and this proved crucial for validating the interpreted geophysical profiles. Each geophysical method applied provided different information for the reconstruction of the site: the electrical resistivity tomography offered the best clues as to the locations of the geological units and the dumps, the seismic refraction tomography visualized the transition between the dump or backfill layers and the underlying bedrock, and the IP measurements revealed residual mineralization. The georadar measurements, on the other hand, did not contribute to the interpretation owing to the limited depth of penetration. Based on the combination of borehole and geophysical data, it was possible to develop a hypothetical model of an open‐pit mine for copper ore that developed in three phases (mines A–C) during the Late Bronze Age. Without the control provided by the core drillings, one of the mining areas (mine A) could not have been correctly identified in the geophysical prospections. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Modern archaeo‐geophysical radar surveys are often executed with multichannel antenna arrays, which allows a much faster survey progress combined with a denser profile spacing. Furthermore, from a methodological point of view, a full 3D dataset is necessary to resolve small targets of a few decimetre diameter. However, only a few test surveys deal with the evaluation of the real improvement in data quality by applying such multichannel arrays. In this paper, a test survey with the IDS Stream‐C 600‐MHz radar device on a small area covering the Roman Bath of Kempten‐Cambodunum is presented. The aim of the study is to figure out whether faint archaeological remains like hypocaust pillars, that is, the pillars of a Roman floor heating system, that are missed by single‐channel devices, are detectable in an ultra‐dense antenna array. Thus, the same area was simultaneously mapped with both GPR configurations. The results of this case study demonstrate the benefit of such antenna arrays for the archaeological prospection of small subsurface features with a diameter of 25 cm or less. For ground‐truthing of the results, a comparison with old excavation maps was executed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ground penetrating radar supported by electrical resistivity tomography and gradiometer surveys were used to map buildings and infrastructure documenting sequential property use by three generations of the Jacob Forney family who began as farmers in the backcountry of North Carolina and rose to prominence in government and industry within the Southeastern United States. At Ingleside, the antebellum plantation house has been preserved, and the adjacent property remains relatively undisturbed. Context for the geophysical surveys was provided by archival photographs, written accounts including monographs and newspaper articles, and an archaeological excavation of the stone hearth within the plantation's summer kitchen. The location of an early log home with a stone‐lined cellar with ties to the Piedmont Campaign of the American Revolution (in 1781) was newly discovered. In addition, a historic road, kitchen garden, and the postholes from an early post‐in‐the‐ground building were imaged within the subsurface. The external summer kitchen and privy are associated with the plantation house constructed in 1817. Several cesspool vaults of potential privies are ingrown with trees. The results of the geophysical surveys document the evolving land use within one family in the American South and can be connected to a specific event in history, a goal of historical archaeology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Geophysical techniques such as electrical resistivity, ground penetrating radar (GPR), gravity, magnetic, and seismic surveys are useful for prospecting archaeological remains. In this study, we delineated the domain and underground structure of the Bonghwang earth castle and the Royal Palace of the Geumgwan Gaya Kingdom, using multiple geophysical surveys (magnetic, electromagnetic, GPR, and electrical resistivity). Based on the results, the Bonghwang earth castle was extended from a small hill branching from the northern end of the Bonghwangdae hill with a width of 20 m to the hill on the southeast end with a width of slightly over 40 m. The Royal Palace inside the Bonghwang earth castle was further explored using magnetic and GPR surveys. As a result low magnetic values are surrounded radially by high magnetic values at multiple independent locations in an irregular shape in the centre of the Royal Palace. In contrast, the high anomaly zone near the centre of the Royal Palace had a rectangular or ellipsoidal shape, necessitating a clear need for archaeological investigation and excavation in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Archaeological investigations of Mississippian platform mounds have traditionally required invasive excavation or coring. Excavations are damaging to sites, and in many cases, invasive or destructive research methods on Native American mounds are forbidden or inappropriate. Non‐invasive geophysical investigations avoid these issues but have their own challenges in terms of resolving the interior of the mound, particularly if electrically conductive materials, such as clay, are present. Here, we present a multi‐method non‐invasive geophysical approach using ground penetrating radar, electrical resistivity tomography, time‐domain induced polarization, and electrical resistance mapping to study the Mississippian platform mound at Snow's Bend (1TU2/3), a late Moundville II/III (ca. AD 1300 to 1520) site located near Moundville, Alabama. From our data, we interpreted at least two construction stages and found indications of remnants of summit architecture on each. The final, as well as earlier, construction stage of the mound had a two‐tier summit with a lower platform in the northern half of the mound. Summit buildings were identified on the lower platforms of each mound stage. We acknowledge that there is inherent uncertainty with any non‐invasive approach, but demonstrate the capabilities of geophysics for new understandings of the life‐histories of Mississippian platform mounds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cyprus, the third largest Mediterranean island, is located at an exceptional crossroad in the eastern Mediterranean, where cultures from the Middle East, Africa and Europe have interacted for more than 10 000 years. The aim of this paper is to present an exhaustive review of the past archaeological geophysical surveys on the island. The result of our research indicates that to date, more than 30 archaeological sites spanning from the Pre‐Pottery Neolithic (ca. 10 000 BC) to the Venetian period (up to 1571 AD) have been investigated through noninvasive ground‐based techniques. The investigations concern the mapping of the extent of ancient occupation (settlements and cemeteries), the study of the internal organization of settlements (domestic architecture, palaces and fortifications), the investigation of funerary structures (tombs) and the use of space within buildings. The methods implemented are multiple and often used in combination. Emphasis has been given to ground penetrating radar (GPR), electromagnetic induction (EMI) and magnetic and electrical resistance techniques. Most surveys have been targeted towards the production of maps representing the spatial distribution of the subsurface architectural residues, and sometimes these have been accompanied by soundings, tomographies, as well as 3D reconstructions of the ancient structures. Very few sites have been subjected to the measurements of the chemical or magnetic properties of the soils in relation to the results of geophysical prospection. Further discussion concerns (i) the targets of the archaeo‐geophysical surveys in Cyprus, (ii) the limitations of the application of the specific techniques in relation to the Cypriot archaeological and geological context, (iii) the geophysical signatures of archaeological remains and (iv) the metadata accompanying the geophysical results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Geophysical methods, and particularly ground penetrating radar (GPR), have been increasingly applied as a preliminary mapping tool to guide archaeological excavations. Direct comparisons between geophysical and archaeological features are however not always systematically performed given the different time spans, covered areas, acquisition and processing approaches of the surveys. A critical comparison between geophysical and archaeological results is here proposed on a test site within the archaeological area of Augusta Bagiennorum (NW Italy). Three rectangular sectors covering an area of approximately 2325 m2 were investigated with high‐density GPR profiles and compared with both historical and new archaeological excavations. The GPR amplitude and attribute analyses highlight the effectiveness of geophysical prospections in identifying buried linear (i.e., walls) and localized (e.g., pillars or columns) archaeological remains. The recent archaeological excavations fully confirm the interpretation of the GPR results. Historical archaeological trenches, filled with coarse material after the excavation, are also found to generate strong anomalies in the GPR amplitude, similar to the ones of the buried structures, but with irregular contours and oblique orientations with respect to Roman remains. The GPR prospections also highlight interesting buried elements in unexplored areas, supporting important archaeological interpretations about the spatial configuration of the Roman city. The results help to recognize sectors with significant and well‐preserved buried remains that can be brought to light in the future to promote heritage conservation and enhancement at the site. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Geophysical investigations have become standard in archaeological practice to map sites and help select location for excavation, but the application of these techniques in real time during excavation to help anticipate feature location and maximize recovery has not been developed. This paper presents results from both traditional geophysics and new approaches to using these methods during excavations at Rice Farm (9DW276), a Middle Woodland site located in a broad floodplain adjacent to the Etowah River in north Georgia. Ground penetrating radar (GPR) at the surface was effective in recording reflection events indicative of archaeological features, such as hearths, posts and possibly ditches. Magnetometry was helpful, but less effective due to heavy plough zone scarring and noise from modern metallic debris. High‐frequency handheld GPR was helpful in monitoring excavations in real time and assisted excavators in anticipating the locations of both large and small diameter features. Excavation of geophysical anomalies exposed important features for the interpretation of this newly documented site. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) and ground‐penetrating radar (GPR) were collected on the eastern side of the northern Ishtar gate in ancient Babylon, Iraq, to locate the palace wall and other surrounding walls. Due to the presence of a low resistivity (highly conductive) top layer associated with brick rubble and other debris, the GPR reflection profiles show a high‐energy attenuation, but a series of processing and filtering steps produced coherent reflections of about 2 m depth. Profile analysis shows the geometry and layering of the walls and the surrounding matrix. With the ERT, the surface conductive zone produces various distortions in ERT inverse models, making identifying the features' lower boundaries difficult. Here, we suggest that instead of analysing these two data sets independently, the integration of both reveals not just the walls but their composition and defines material in the surrounding units. This integration shows how the interpretation of the shallow features on the 3D ERT maps is improved by comparison and interpretation in conjunction with the reflections visible on both reflection profiles and the 3D GPR amplitude slices. The orientation of these features and reflections emphasizes the existence of one series of buried walls at a depth of 90–150 cm. The thickness of these walls varies between 0.25 and 1 m. Another wall‐like feature is visible only on 3D ERT maps and not with the 3D GPR slices at 2 m depth, which indicates a thickness of 11 m. It is interpreted as the palace wall, which is consistent with earlier archaeological excavations. An analysis of the geometry and composition of both wall components, perhaps of different ages, and constructed for different reasons, indicates that some shallower walls may be the remains of rooms built as residences for soldiers, or they may belong to the other ruins of northern Ishtar gate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents the results of magnetic and ground‐penetrating radar (GPR) research carried out in Old Dongola in northern Sudan in 2018 and 2020, within the framework of a project designed to investigate the transition from Christianity to Islam taking place in the capital of the Nubian kingdom of Makuria. The integrated datasets from the application of two geophysical methods, of which one is the standard magnetic method used on sites in the Nile Valley and the other ground‐penetrating radar, enhanced the archaeological interpretation, focused in this case on a reconstruction of the urban layout of the 16th–18th‐century Funj settlement within the walls of the Dongola Citadel. The magnetic method, the effectiveness of which has gone unquestioned with regard to the study of silt architecture in the Nile valley, was successful in mapping the general outline of the settlement on the Citadel hill and in the quarter north of the walls. The GPR survey (450‐MHz antenna) provided a much more detailed image of the street grid and was much more effective than the magnetic method in tracing the course of mud‐brick walls in a sandy matrix containing baked brick rubble. Verification of the geophysical results through the excavation of selected parts of the Citadel not only satisfied the objectives of the archaeological project, which was to establish the overall street and building layout in the research area, but also confirmed the effectiveness of the two prospection methods applied in combination and the potential of integrated research with the use of the GPR and magnetic methods for the study of mud‐brick and baked brick architecture on settlement sites in Sudan. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ground‐penetrating radar (GPR) prospection method has rarely been used previously in Egyptian archaeology and never for a necropolis. Archaeologists have looked at GPR as a powerful method for exploring subsurface spatial patterns in the archaeological record without excavation. The results of the GPR survey were compared with the archaeological excavation outcomes on two archeological sites in Assiut. The first site is the temple located on a rocky bench on the northern slopes of El‐Hamamia, the Eastern bank of the Nile (a part of El Badari civilization period, belongs to Predynastic cemeteries). The second is the rocky tomb at the Western bank of the Nile at Gahdem (belongs to the period from the IXth to the XXXth dynasty). The main purpose of this study is to correlate the types of reflections recorded from GPR profiles and high‐amplitude features visible in amplitude maps with unearthed archaeological features. The applied software was able to process and analyse different digital data set with the given parameters. In each investigated archaeological area, the details of the GPR model are correlated level‐by‐level to the data of archeological excavations of ancient ages and data of the historical documents. Three‐dimensional time‐slices of the GPR data allow the identification of the enhanced targets of potential archaeological interest before planning excavation. Therefore, this research paper can be used as a benchmark to evaluate the efficiency of GPR method for identifying buried archaeological artifacts/vestiges for future archaeological prospection in Egypt. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We show an extensive multimethod geophysical study of focusing on some enigmatic subsurface structures found at Ancient Aigeira (N Peloponnes, Greece) that could be interpreted either as prehistoric chamber tombs or complex weathering patterns of the local marl–conglomerate rock sequences. It turns out that the nonseismic methods do not allow to distinguish between an archaeological and a geological origin of the observed patterns with certainty. In contrast, we demonstrate how shear‐wave seismics and full‐waveform inversion (FWI) can be used in archaeological prospection for distinguishing between these alternative essentially different interpretational models that are not distinguishable through nonseismic prospection data. The example site Aigeira is strategically well located on a hill on the Northern Peloponnese overlooking the Corinthian Gulf and has been inhabited with occupational gaps since Middle Neolithic times until the 12th to early 14th century ce. Magnetics, ground‐penetrating radar (GPR) and electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) reveal a honeycomb‐shaped anomaly pattern that could have been interpreted as a system of prehistoric chamber tombs. The time‐domain SH‐FWI strategy based on a sequential inversion of low‐pass and band‐pass filtered data results in subsurface models for shear‐wave velocity and density that accurately fits the complicated seismic data set. A highly heterogeneous subsurface is revealed that is characterized by linear cracks on a decimetre scale. The seismic FWI results are compared in detail with GPR, ERT and among each other. It turns out that the FWI result is consistent with each of these other geophysical methods but provides a more comprehensive subsurface characterization that it is supported by corings in addition. With the help of the seismic survey, we can reject the interpretation hypothesis of a prehistoric cemetery with chamber tombs and confirm that the enigmatic geophysical patterns represent a geological weathering structure that could be addressed as a reincised fan delta draped by reddish palaeosols. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we present the results of the 2016–2019 study of the residence of the noble Ciołek family, in Żelechów (Mazovia, eastern Poland). The complex, located on a marshy and overgrown terrain, was recently discovered through the Airborne Laser Scanning (ALS) data analysis. The site was surveyed using three geophysical methods: magnetometry (fluxgate gradiometer); electrical resistivity (two level twin‐probe profiling); ground‐penetrating radar (GPR) (450‐MHz antenna). The data allowed to formulate hypotheses on the layout of the complex, its functions, phases and used building materials, which were verified by simultaneously conducted archaeological excavations. Adopted interdisciplinary approach resulted in the comprehensive exploration of the large defensive residence and the reconstruction of its phases with only a minor use of the intrusive archaeological excavation method. The examination of written records and dendrochronological and numismatic analyses allowed to date the complex to the 15th–17th century as well as to verify some hypotheses formulated based on the geophysical data. The presented study gives an impulse for transdisciplinary geophysical, archaeological and historical exploration of rarely identified and scarcely researched noble residences on the border between two medieval administrative regions—Mazovia and Lesser Poland. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The area known today as Lavreotiki corresponds roughly to the ancient mining district of Lavrion, located in the south‐easternmost part of Attica in Greece. In Classical times, the 5000 hectares of mines and metallurgical workshops provided the wealth to enable the Polis of Athens (the Athenian city‐state) to become the leading hegemonic political power in the Greek world. During this time, Thorikos was one of 10 Attic Demes in the mining district, extending over a complex system of alluvial valleys and across the slopes of the surrounding hills. Archaeological research in this area has previously revealed a theatre, a double doric stoa, mines and metallurgical workshops, dispersed or in clusters. The geoarchaeological investigation presented in this paper attempts to shed light on the spatial organization of the ancient Attic Deme of Thorikos through developing an understanding of the contemporaneous palaeoenvironment. It is designed to test the hypothesis that the 'Double Doric Stoa' building was originally part of the Thorician community centre, that is, its Agora, and to suggest possible locations for the Deme's harbour. A geophysical survey of the Thorikos Valley was conducted in regional mode utilizing frequency electromagnetic method (FEM) measurements in order to accommodate a local salinization phenomenon and in local mode, around a 'Double Doric Stoa' building, with FEM and ground‐penetrating radar (GPR) measurements. The survey used electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) profiles for deep investigation. This multi‐proxy survey generated a stratigraphy for the palaeoenvironment around the 'Double Doric Stoa' building and revealed outlines of anthropogenic, probably ancient, structures. The results suggest that the surveyed area and its features lay on a peninsula‐like land formation, close to the palaeo‐coastline (thus providing clues to the location of the ancient harbour), and that the dispersion and outlines of the buried anthropogenic structures corroborate the interpretation of the site as the Thorician Agora. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A group of Han dynasty tombs were found in a small town in central eastern China. It is difficult to infer the underground structures of the cemetery based on surface information. Geophysical methods are nonintrusive technology that can be used in archaeological excavations to provide important underground information. Multiple geophysical methods including total magnetic field (TMF), self‐potential (SP), direct‐current resistivity (DCR) and ground‐penetrating radar (GPR) were used to investigate the structure of ancient tombs. Total magnetic anomaly (TMA) and SP data can be used to obtain the projections of anomalous bodies on earth surface. DCR and GPR data can be used to gauge and further determine the spatial locations and depths of the anomalies. The results of the integrated geophysical interpretation were used to optimize the excavation plans and were verified by the subsequent works, such as coffin chambers, dromoi, ancient building foundations and funeral pit. Integrated geophysical survey can effectively reduce the uncertainly of a single method and obtain the targets more accurately. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The cave systems of the Malmani Dolomite, Gauteng, South Africa, have over the decades yielded numerous specimens of Pliocene to early Pleistocene hominin fossils which are critical for our understanding of human evolution. The geomorphological and geological context of these fossils is complex. An understanding of cave formational processes coupled with effective surface and subsurface mapping of different strata and soil depths has the potential to provide new insights. A technique that has not previously been employed to the fossil sites of South Africa is the use of ground‐penetrating radar (GPR). Applied in combination with ground‐truthing data from excavations and 3D scanning and photogrammetry the combined technique highlights the capacity for GPR to help characterise various deposits. Results indicate the potential of the method to identify new void spaces, depth of colluvium as well as mapping structurally important chert bedding. This paper focuses on the Paranthropus and early Homo‐bearing cave complex of Drimolen but highlights the potential for applying these methods throughout the region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Indigenous communities are increasingly turning to archaeological remote sensing to help detect and preserve the material remains of their pasts without extensive excavations. For some Indigenous communities, histories of dispossession and mobility have led to a disconnection between them and archaeological sites, leading to challenges with collaborative models emphasizing local engagement. Here, we present a case study where the nearest modern community associated with the site is hundreds of kilometres away but preserving their heritage is important. The Métis, an Indigenous nation, emerged alongside the North American fur trade during the seventeenth century and became a distinct people. During the nineteenth century, the Métis adopted a highly mobile lifestyle, centred around bison hunting, where they would form temporary villages to overwinter on the northern plains. This case study highlights a post‐contact application of remote sensing where the targets are not large colonial structures but more ephemeral and short‐term occupation sites. We applied multiple methods, specifically ground‐penetrating radar (GPR), magnetic gradiometry, multi‐spectral and orthographic UAV imagery, to survey the mid‐nineteenth‐century Métis wintering site of Chimney Coulee (DjOe‐6), near Eastend, Saskatchewan, Canada. Using high‐frequency GPR (900 MHz) and magnetic gradiometry, this survey successfully delineated the wood wall remains and chimney of one cabin, later confirmed through targeted excavation. The survey was then expanded to other higher potential areas of the site to help refine the approach and define other areas of interest. Here, we outline the results of the Chimney Coulee project and our progress in developing an integrated remote sensing approach for Métis sites. We conclude that there are many forms of collaboration to which remote sensing can contribute and that careful survey can provide insights for modern groups' sense of identity, homelands and Indigenous rights. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rural basilicas are the most important evidence of Christianization of the countryside on the island of Mallorca (Balearic Islands, Spain). Recent investigations of rural landscape transformations suggest that some churches were built along communication routes and linked to preexisting settlements. To obtain new data that could support this hypothesis, a geophysical survey has been carried out at the early Christian complex of Son Peretó, one of the most emblematic sites for the understanding of Late Antiquity on the island. The objective was to better define the site investigating the possible presence of other remains related to the Christian complex, that is undergoing excavation, or to a previous settlement that was later Christianized. The geophysical survey was carried out combining magnetometry and ground‐penetrating radar. For the magnetic investigation, a multiprobe gradiometer array was used. GPR was used to examine the areas nearby the remains already excavated and to better define areas where the magnetic data revealed interesting anomalies. GPR data were collected using an IDS GPR system. The results revealed both the presence of architectural remains beneath the soil that help define the Early Christian complex, as well as other remains that suggest the church was part of a larger settlement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In archaeo‐geophysical investigations, the accuracy and resolution of the generated geophysical models are crucial parameters for excavation decision. Therefore, the combined use of different geophysical data sets is necessary to improve the interpretability of archaeological ruins, particularly in case of low physical contrast objects. The present study's objective is to validate the outputs of integrated ground penetrating radar (GPR) and electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) surveys in Tanis, which is considered one of the most important archaeological sites in the Nile Delta, Egypt. The GPR survey was carried out along an area of 24 × 31.5 m with profile interval of 0.5 m in two orthogonal directions using 100, 200 and 600 MHz shielded antenna. Moreover, nine ERT profiles were performed along the same GPR lines for comparison and integration using Wenner‐beta (WB) and dipole–dipole (DD) arrays with 1 m electrode spacing and 3 m profile spacing. In addition, the ERT measurements were executed by implementing two tie lines of the same length, electrode spacing and electrode arrays to reduce the effect of banding or directional bias. The processed 2D GPR and ERT profiles have illustrated series of mud‐brick walls within the top 2 m in silt–clay background which is underlined by the turtle‐back of Sand Island. In such conditions, the mud‐brick walls in conductive soils with complex spatial distributions have produced tricky and difficult anomalies to be interpreted using only 2D data sets. To overcome this challenging case, the GPR orthogonal profiles were collated in 3D domain, while the ERT profiles were gathered and inverted using 3D robust inversion algorithm and validated with an identified mud‐brick wall. Therefore, the created 3D visualizations demonstrated the efficiency of the joint use of the ERT and GPR surveys as an enhanced mapping tool for buried archaeological ruins and can be used at similar archaeological sites all over the world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A research project aimed at the study of the archaeological context of the Basilica Julia in the Roman Forum (Rome, Italy) and the transformation phases of the building involved the use of different techniques of geophysical prospecting. In particular, Ground‐penetrating Radar (GPR) and Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) surveys were carried out in order to record the buried structures of the Basilica and the previous buildings laying in the southern part of the Forum. These geophysical methods have been chosen in order to guarantee a good compromise between resolution (GPR in the shallow subsurface) and depth of investigation (ERT in the deeper subsurface), with the aim of investigating up to a depth of about 10 m in a very conductive subsoil. In particular, GPR surveys were conducted in the five aisles of the monument, while ERT measurements were performed with nonstandard acquisition mode in order to include the entire perimeter of the building. These techniques allowed us to acquire new data on the structures buried in the sectors of the monumental complex that have never been excavated and on the paleosoil till a depth of about 10 m from the surface. Interesting data were acquired on the Basilica Julia itself, built during the late Republican period (54–46 BC) and rebuilt at the beginning of the first century AD, such as the technical features of the caementicium and travertine foundations, their relationship with the Cloaca Maxima and the traces of a design change occurred during the construction in the central aisle of the building; other buried remains of the previous Basilica Sempronia, constructed in 169 BC in the same area, were identified. Moreover, the investigations documented the paleosoil in the area between the Forum and the Velabrum to the south, between 7.5–8.5 and 5.5 m a.s.l. These data confirmed the general geological setting of the area, obtained from previous coring, but significantly specified the geomorphology of this border sector of the Roman Forum, which slopes down towards the south and the west. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ground‐penetrating radar (GPR) method with the standard constant‐offset reflection mode allows to detect and map different types of archaeological structures, such as walls, foundations, floors and roads. The interpretation of the GPR data usually involves a detailed and time‐consuming analysis of large amounts of information, which entails nonnegligible chances of errors, especially under nonideal fieldwork conditions. The application of suitable automatic detection algorithms can be useful to more rapidly and successfully complete the interpretation task. In this work, we explore the use of supervised machine learning methodologies to automatically detect mud‐wall signatures in radargrams and to map the structures from these detections. Several algorithms, based on Viola–Jones cascade classifiers and the image feature descriptors Haar, histogram of oriented gradients and local binary patterns, were implemented. These algorithms were applied to datasets previously acquired in pre‐Inca and Inca‐Hispanic sites located in the Andean NW region of Argentina. The best algorithms provided very good detection rates for well‐preserved walls and acceptable rates for deteriorated walls, with a low number of spurious predictions. They also exhibited the ability to detect collapsed walls and fragments detached from them. These are remarkable results because mud walls are usually difficult to be detected by conventional analysis, owing to the complex and variable characteristics of their reflection patterns. The results of the automatic detection techniques were represented in plan views and three‐dimensional (3D) views that delineated in detail most of the structures of the sites. These algorithms are very fast, so applying them significantly reduces the interpretation times. In addition, once they have been trained using the patterns of one or several sites, they are directly applicable to other sites with similar characteristics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Electromagnetic induction (EMI) has been used in archaeology for decades, but still lags in use and development when compared to magnetometry and ground‐penetrating radar. While it has become more popular than electrical resistivity area survey, it is now less commonly used than electrical resistivity tomography. The EMI method is likely underutilized due to drift problems and a lack of multi‐sensor, vehicle‐towed systems capable of rapid, high‐density data collection. In this article we demonstrate not only the effectiveness of EMI survey, but a case where entire villages would have remained undetected without it. At the Singer‐Hieronymus Site in central Kentucky, USA, a vehicle‐towed frequency domain EMI survey detected the location of plazas, residential areas, and trash disposal areas across multiple Fort Ancient villages that contained both intact and heavily disturbed deposits. Additionally, three new villages were revealed. Through this process, we discovered how Fort Ancient village dynamics may be studied through a geophysical investigation of village shape, size, and spatial organization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Detailed and precise measurement of the Earth's gravity field (microgravity method) can be effectively used for the detection and quantification of subsurface voids and/or cavities. There exist a variety of successful applications of the microgravity method in near surface geophysics, namely in geotechnical, environmental and archaeological prospection. Using state‐of‐the‐art 'microgal' relative gravity meters, cavities of several metres in each dimension (positioned at a similar depth) can be detected and interpreted. Such objects produce negative anomalies with amplitudes of several tens of microGals (1 microGal = 10−8 m s−2). This contribution is focused on a methodological overview of the most important acquisition and processing steps in archaeological microgravimetry. In the processing of acquired gravimetrical data into a Bouguer anomaly, the so‐called building correction plays an important role, because the gravitational effect of building masses can produce false, usually negative anomalies. Several selected methods for quantitative interpretation are presented, these are based on depth estimation and density modelling. These interpretation methods give satisfactory results in the case of these type of negative anomalies that are caused by subsurface cavities. Microgravimetry can obtain good support from electromagnetic and electrical methods, mainly from ground penetrating radar and electrical resistivity tomography, respectively. Finally, we present successful case‐studies of microgravimetrical detection of crypts in various churches from the Middle Ages and period of Modern History, surveyed during recent decades in Slovakia and Czechia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Geophysical techniques are used to detect mounds and burial chambers, but detecting the shape and layout of large mausoleums containing main tombs and ancillary facilities is a developing field. The shape and layout of mausoleums are closely related to cultural practices. In this study, integrated geophysical technologies were used to survey a large‐scale mausoleum in Hangzhou, China. The layout of the main tomb was deduced from magnetic gradient measurements, and the depth and scale were inferred from electrical resistivity tomography (ERT). The location and burial depth of ancillary facilities, including the mausoleum path, were characterized using the depth (time) slice of ground‐penetrating radar (GPR) three‐dimensional (3D) attribute analysis. An integrated interpretation of geophysical results combined with archaeological documents provides the plan and section layouts of the mausoleum. Based on integrated analyses and archaeological documents, the age of the mausoleum was inferred (middle to late Southern Song Dynasty). Subsequent test excavations partly confirmed the results and showed that the combination of geophysical technologies and archaeological documents are effective and valuable for detecting large‐scale mausoleums. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article presents the results of a geophysical survey conducted in the Sowie Mountains within the Walim commune (Poland) in order to verify the discovery of the 'Underground Town' of Riese. Project Riese was the biggest mining and construction project of Nazi Germany. The facility was designed as a convenient and secure location for a headquarters, an armaments factory, and warehouses for goods stolen during World War II. The discovery was made in 2015 with the application of the mysterious KS‐700 apparatus, the same as was used to 'discover' the 'Gold Train', which is ground penetrating radar (GPR) according to the manufacturer. It was one of the reasons why the verification surveys of the underground sites and the KS‐700 apparatus made use of the GPR method. The depth range of the GPR method was limited to 5 m due to the strong attenuation of electromagnetic waves. It was thus concluded that the underground structures detected by the 'discoverers' were probably a result of apparatus errors, in which near‐surface reflections are received repeatedly and recorded as returning from a depth far greater than the actual object. Therefore, the electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) method proved to be conclusive. The three obtained characteristics and extremely high‐resistivity anomalies indicated the existence of underground tunnels. A thorough analysis of the results and acquired data, as well as of the literature, has proven that it is impossible to interpret them unambiguously as data from the subsurface but as a result of the influence of the surrounding objects. At other sites where the KS‐700 apparatus recorded numerous 'underground cavities', the ERT cross‐sections did not yield a correlated image. Additionally, neither the analysis of the local geological structure with regard to the existence of an underground town nor the drilled boreholes confirmed the 'discoverer's' results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent archaeological studies revealed that the Neolithic hunter–gatherers in south‐eastern Anatolia established highly developed settlements with evidence of the production of sophisticated symbolic artefacts, the existence of long‐distance trade, and elaborated burial practices. Their social organization was complex and can even be compared with that of the Levantine Early Pre‐Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) farming society. The presence of such highly developed hunter–gatherer settlements requires a reconsideration of the neolithization process. However, a complete understanding of the sizes and plans of the settlements remains lacking because excavations so far have only been conducted in limited areas of the sites. This article presents the results of geophysical investigations using magnetometric and ground penetrating radar (GPR) surveys at the hunter–gatherer site of Hasankeyf Höyük in south‐eastern Anatolia. The results showed that a combination of magnetometric and GPR methods complementarily provides better prospection of sub‐surface structures than a single method does. In addition, this research has demonstrated that the Neolithic hunter–gatherers at Hasankeyf Höyük established a sedentary village with densely arranged buildings, which had not previously been substantiated at any other Neolithic site in south‐eastern Anatolia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mississippian mounds in the south‐eastern and mid‐continental United States often contain multiple construction stages and a diverse array of features. Investigating mound construction with excavation is expensive, logistically challenging, and sometimes politically impossible. Three mounds at the Angel site (12VG1), a Mississippian village (caad 1100–1450) in the lower Ohio River Valley, were investigated with non‐invasive geophysical and minimally invasive geoarchaeological methods. We compare the efficacy of two different ground‐penetrating radar (GPR) antenna frequencies (250 and 500 MHz) for detecting elements of mound construction previously identified with solid‐earth cores, magnetometry, and electrical resistance tomography. Solid‐earth cores provide stratigraphic information about mound layers and construction soils and materials with low horizontal spatial resolution. Surface magnetometry provides information on shallow features, such as buried building walls and floors at high resolution, but little information about depth. Radar profiles taken with 500 MHz and 250 MHz antennae were evaluated to determine which antenna frequencies are most suitable for detecting features and strata that had been documented using the other methods. Utilizing the solid‐earth cores for velocity correlations, the 500 MHz antenna provided the most useful information about prehistoric structures near the mound surface, but was limited by its relatively shallow penetration depth. The 250 MHz antenna was not able to resolve shallow features as clearly as the 500 MHz antenna. However, it was able to detect possible interior mound platforms and features, although without providing many details about possible buried structures. In combination, GPR, solid‐earth cores, and magnetometry provided new information about the construction of mounds at the Angel site. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Geophysical surveys based on ground‐penetrating radar (GPR) and magnetic methods have recently been carried out at the Iberian site of Masies de Sant Miquel, which is dated to the Iron Age (seventh–third centuries bc). The design and execution of the survey are presented, as well as the interpretation process, which is based on the interaction between the members of the prospection team (SOT Prospection) and the archaeologists from the University of Barcelona (UB) and the Catalan Institute of Classical Archaeology (ICAC), integrating geophysical as well as archaeological data. Although the site had previously been studied during the 1980s and 1990s, excavations have been limited in scope and the settlement remained largely unknown. The new research discussed in this article makes it possible to deduce the general traits of the urban plan and the major architectural features. The results confirm the urban nature of the site, not only due to its size (several densely‐occupied hectares), but also the complexity of its architecture and urban planning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Thanks to recent advances in deep learning (DL) and the increasing availability of large labeled/annotated datasets and trained network models, there has been impressive progress in the automated analysis of images from different scientific domains such as medicine, microbiology, astronomy and remote sensing. The automated analysis of archaeo‐geophysical data is also considered important due to the large spatial extent of areas covered by landscape surveys using multi‐sensor arrays driven by motorized carts and subsequently the large volume of collected data. In this work, a convolutional neural network (CNN) is built by Python 3.6 programming language using the Deep Learning Library of Keras with Tensorflow backends, a library that implements the building blocks for CNN. The network is trained from scratch adopting U‐Net architecture to accomplish an automatic analysis of the archaeo‐geophysical features with emphasis on ground‐penetrating radar (GPR) anomalies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Etruscan site of Pyrgi extended over 10 ha along the Tyrrhenian coastline. Fieldwork has so far brought to light the sanctuary and a ceremonial complex at the southern edge of the settlement, whereas additional evidence is provided by a section cut by sea erosion across the site. The archaeological layer is about 2 m thick and includes dry masonry buildings arranged into lots; the most superficial features are disturbed by deep agricultural activities and the top layer includes scattered building material (limestone and tuff blocks). At this site, the efficacy of geophysical prospections are generally affected by the nearby presence of the beach's magnetic sand and the railway line. The use of dense ground penetrating radar (GPR) data proved to be the most suitable method in the mapping of buried archeological structures and made it possible to map out the topographic layout of the area which is currently under excavation. The dense three‐dimensional georadar (GPR) data highlight the presence of structures implanted at different topographic levels and provide preliminary information about the main building interventions and planimetric modifications inside the urban lots. The work was extremely useful for the future planning of the archaeological excavation as it makes it possible to reduce the costs and environmental impact of the archaeological activity. The georadar anomalies were confirmed by an archaeological test‐trench conducted in the surveyed area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Earth mounds are common archaeological features in some regions of Australia, particularly within the Murray‐Darling Basin. These features are generally considered to have formed via the repeated use of earth oven cookery methods employed by Aboriginal people during the mid‐ to late‐Holocene. This study assesses the relative effectiveness of key geophysical methods including magnetometry, ground‐penetrating radar (GPR) and electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) in mapping, and determining the stratigraphy of earth mound sites. Three earth mounds adjacent to Hunchee Creek, on Calperum Station in South Australia's Riverland region, were chosen to conduct a comparative trial of these methods. This research demonstrated that geophysics can be used to both locate mounds and provide information as to deposit thickness and size. Individual ovens within mounds can also be located. This suggests a greater potential role for geophysics in understanding the Holocene archaeological record in Australia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article presents the results of a three‐dimensional (3D) stratigraphic analysis of a Neolithic roundel in Bodzów (south‐western Poland) with the application of the Amplitude Data Comparison (ADC) method. The ADC method is based on the comparison of magnetic amplitude records (in nanoteslas) with corresponding ground‐penetrating radar (GPR) reflection profiles. Thus, it is possible to analyse the 3D aspects of buried features based on GPR images and their composition from magnetic readings. In other words, the ADC method can be used to provide a more complete understanding of buried archaeological objects and structures detected by geophysical surveys using GPR and magnetic (gradiometer) methods. The surveys performed in Bodzów have indicated that the Neolithic roundel located there had a multiphase development and thus is perfectly suitable for a study with the application of the ADC method. The performed ADC analysis indicates that there were three gates leading to the roundel interior. Positions of prehistoric storage and dwelling pits, and other settlement features were also detected and interpreted. Clusters of these features are located both inside and outside the roundel, which suggests that people lived within the site during different periods. In the southern part of the roundel, GPR reflection profiles and associated magnetic readings point to the presence of V‐shaped shallow ditches, which may date back to the early Iron Age, as well as an extensive Pleistocene fluvial channel and associated geological features, which is very clearly marked on GPR maps. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Santa Elena, located on Parris Island along the coast of South Carolina, was the first capital, and northernmost permanent settlement, of Spanish La Florida. Over two decades of occupation (ad 1566–1587), five forts were successively built while by ad 1569 a burgeoning Spanish settlement of over 200 people, complete with artisans, farmers, and Jesuit missionaries, flourished. Here, we articulate the results of recent, full‐coverage ground‐penetrating radar and magnetic gradiometry surveys with over 40 years of extant archaeological data to elucidate organizational characteristics of the Spanish settlement at Santa Elena. In particular, we use geophysical data to identify the potential locations of buried Spanish wells across the site. We identify roughly 200 potential well locations and compare these locations to the distribution of Spanish artifacts across the site yielded through a full‐coverage shovel test survey, the arrangement of Spanish structures known from large‐scale block excavations, and the likely position of roadways and house lots. This new data is used to contextualize and refine extant understandings of Santa Elena's town plan while also contributing to a broader research program devoted to exploring Spanish colonial life and settlement in 16th‐century North America (The Santa Elena Landscape Project). As Santa Elena is a National Historic Landmark currently threatened by rising sea levels, this work contributes to an efficient, minimally invasive research program devoted to exploring the Spanish settlement at Santa Elena and to documenting the range of cultural resources present at the site for the purposes of protection and remediation in the context of significant, ongoing shoreline erosion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]