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The concept of narcissism was introduced by Freud's psychoanalysis and is founded on a solid biological basis today, namely the so-called happiness hormones (endorphins, serotonin etc.), which generate happiness, joy and other positive feelings in the human being. By setting rules as to which actions are socially accepted and appreciated and thus associated with a positive feedback, society is able to promote the desirable behaviour and effectively control the integration of the individual into society. Happiness can be sought either in professional or in private life. Negative experiences in one of these fields can be compensated by positive experiences in the other. By means of a case, in which bottled-up narcissistic rage led to a state of severely impaired consciousness, the applicability of the forensic theory of narcissism in criminal law is illustrated and discussed. Depressive disorders, posttraumatic stress disorders, personality changes after extremely stressful situations and non-substance addictions such as computer addiction can be better understood on the basis of Kohut's model of the narcissistic balance of satisfaction.

The clarification of deaths from electric current can be difficult when electric skin marks are missing or overlooked. In the following, the fatal electric accident of a 21-year-old man in prison is reported with a scene which primarily seemed to be inconspicuous. The autopsy disclosed typical electric marks in the skin of the left thumb and the corresponding part of the left index finger. A second inspection of the jail room, which was large enough for three men, but occupied by the deceased alone, led to the finding of widely spread utensils (two forks with signs of corrosion and deformation of the prongs, radio cable with socket, water container) for the self-construction of a kind of "immersion heater" for the heating of water. The man must have suffered electrocution when touching the prongs of the forks. Death supposedly occurred due to disturbances of the cardiac rhythm after a longer interval of maintained ability to act. The case again proves the difficulties in the detection and examination of possible electric deaths in which unusual sources of electricity must be considered.

Due to technical innovations and strict safety regulations the rate and mortality of accidents caused by electric current has been considerably reduced. Nevertheless there are still deaths caused by electric shock, which are mostly due to carelessness and ignorance. The described death by electric shock of a 39-year-old man was the consequence of an electrotechnical curiosity. When repairing a cut extender cable, he installed a second socket on the one part and a second plug on the other. On the day of the accident, he first plugged the part of the cable with the two plugs into a wall socket. Then, as he tried to connect it with the other part, he was electrocuted.

A 52-year-old man had altered a wooden folding chair by placing two electrodes and a circuit underneath the seat. Using a remote control, he was able to give electric shocks to a person sitting on the chair. He used this device on more than 50 children, video-taping their reactions for his own pleasure. There are no reports that any of the children suffered a lasting damage to their health. The construction as well as the function and the electrical parameters of the chair were examined by forensic specialists. According to their expertise, the construction was not able to cause a potentially life-threatening condition when used with healthy children. The perpetrator was convicted for bodily harm etc.

The frequency of electric arc accidents has been successfully reduced owing to preventive measures taken by the professional association. However, the risk of accidents has continued to exist in private setting. Three fatal electric arc accidents caused by high voltage are reported with reference to the autopsy findings.

The authors report on the death of a 25-year-old man due to electric current in prison, which was not recognized at first. The fatal accident was caused by a self-made electric kettle. The only electrothermal skin lesions were some pinhead-sized electric marks on the left thumb. Careful external inspection of the body in combination with an analysis of the conductor material (aluminium) by means of atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) revealed the cause of death and the source of accidental electrocution.

The authors report on an initially unrecognized fatal accident caused by electric current at the place of work. The source of the current was a satellite dish which had been improperly connected to an old music box with subsequent connection to the household electrocution system (220 V, 50 Hz). Only when a second nearly fatal accident occurred, proper diagnosis and detection of the uncommon source of the electric current was made.

Suicidal electrocution using a time switch is relatively rare. Based on two cases from the authors' own forensic material and seven cases from literature peculiarities regarding the concomitant intake of medicines (benzodiazepines) and alcohol are discussed and comments are made how to proceed in the criminal and forensic investigation of such cases.

From medicolegal practice it is known that in deaths caused by low voltage, electric marks may be absent or inconspicuous so that they may remain undetected during the scene examination. That this may happen even in fatal high-voltage accidents is demonstrated by 4 examples from our own autopsy material. The cases reported shared the following features: The decedents were found outdoors under a high-voltage line with a several metres long conductive object being in the immediate vicinity of the body; no extensive burns as those seen after the impact of an electric arc; inconspicuous electric marks on the hands; clearly visible electrothermal skin lesions limited to body regions covered by clothing (especially soles of the feet). Another case report demonstrates that even fatal lightning accidents are not always recognized correctly.

We report on 3 deaths after the influence of high voltage current, fire and traumatic injury respectively. In all cases we found radial bands beside the eyes--so called "crow's feet". They are a sign of vital reaction in the cases of traumatic and thermic injury, possibly also in high-voltage burns due to sparking. In general, the "crow's feet" show that the person was conscious at the moment of the event.

A case of seldom electrocution by using a timer is presented being carried out from a 35 year old woman, who didn't have any professional background. As the fundamental histological result and classical vital reaction a bone marrow embolism was found. Circumstances, results and line of argumentation are presented in detail and discussed.

Report on a suicidal electrocution, in which a 29-year-old man twisted copper wires around his wrists fixing the ends to an emergency current aggregate. Heavy metal analyses of the electrical marks were performed with ICP-AES-spectrometry.

13 electric shock weapons were investigated. The authors measured the electrical output and observed the effects on corpses and test persons. The electric shock weapons produced only moderate pain and did not stop the disposing capacity. The electrocardiogram and the circulation parameters were not influenced. The electric shock weapons tested might have only a limited deterrent effect and might be able to cause fatal complications under circumstances. Drug use and heart disease might enhance the risk.

A "crowsfoot-like" pattern is considered as being a sign of vitality in fatalities due to the effects of smoke, fire or high voltage (active or reflex contraction of mimic muscles). Introducing the autopsy results of a high voltage accident (66,600 V) it is discussed, whether this phenomenon and the underlying contraction of the facial muscles could also be caused by electrical current in the agony or supravital period. It seems possible that this mechanism of direct muscle contraction anticipates a nerval indirect stimulation of muscle fibres by innervating motoneurones--active or on the basis of a polysynaptic extraneous reflex. If the electrophysiological course discussed should be right, a "crowsfoot-like" pattern in equivalent cases could be interpreted as a vital sign only with great reserve.

A 55-year-old man was found unconscious with ventricular fibrillations at his working place near a power press. CPR was successful. After three weeks of intensive care the patient died of ischemic brain damage. The first suspected diagnosis of myocardial infarction was revised when typical current marks were detected on both palms. At the working place the top of a lubricating grease container was found to be energized due to a technical damage: There is a round, multiple-pole plug mounted upon the container top the proper orientation of which is coded by a set of five plastic nipples. All the nipples had been abraded by longlasting mechanical stress, so that the plug could be connected in a variety of possible orientations. In actual fact, the incorrect orientation caused a voltage of up to 240 V to the container top.

The authors describe a suicide case of a 37 year old master joiner caused by electricity. One wire was put around a neck and the other around the left wrist.

Between 1968 and 1977 in Austria 38.6 per cent of all deaths due to electricity were caused by high voltages (in the decade before only 23.5 per cent). Victims are mostly middle-aged men. Three of four victims still die on the scene of accident. Based on 16 cases of fatal high tension electrocution some autopsy findings are discussed from the medico-legal point of view. One of four cases showed entrance and exit points of current resembling "typical" electric marks (as they are known from exposure to domestic voltages). In one case the marks produced by a 20,000 volts overhead-supply were so small that they have been overlooked by the medical examiner. Half the bodies exhibited major surface burns from involvement in electric arcs. About one third of the fatal accidents was accompanied by secondary mechanical traumas. Asphyxial findings (petechial hemorrhages in the eyelids and conjunctivae, as well as under the pleura and the epicardium, etc.) were noticed in two cases. Such unspecific signs of suffocation also are met, if death is caused by domestic voltages (in our material the frequency amounts to 13 per cent). One case-study deals with special morphological findings after long-time exposure to high tension electricity: besides charrings and severance of limbs also fat and gas embolism into the right ventricle (due to local tissue heating) was observed. By emission spectroscopy of residues on the copper wire calcium and phosphorus originating from melted bones could be detected.

During a sailing maneuvre the mast of the boat was brought into contact with a high-voltage transmission line; the metal parts of the boat caused a ground connection into the water. At first, the four men on board the boat attempted to interrupt the flow of electric current. In doing so, one of them got into the electric circuit and became unconscious. A second sailer jumped into the water, in order to save his unconscious colleague by pulling him ashore. This attempt, however, was not successful. Only the bodies of the two sailors could be recovered by divers. The forensic findings concerning each of the two bodies, as well as the results of an on-the-spot examination done with the help of the two survivors of the accident, are discussed with emphasis on the electrophysical laws related to the causes of death.

The authors report a case of homicide by misadventure caused with electricity; a 68 years old man (who was bed-ridden because of hemiplegia following apoplexy) was "treated" with electricity by his son and son-in-law. The electricity was produced by the continuous operation of a moped and as in ECG examinations the electrodes were attached to his extremities. Following the second treatment his death was due to cerebral haemorrhage and partial aspiration of gastric content. The causal relation between the electric treatment and the death could be established. In connection with this case the authors discuss the aspects of medical expertise and emphasize the importance of complex expert examination that must be made in such cases.