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This paper investigated the effects of a paternalistic and empowering leadership style on organizational citizenship behaviour ( OCB) in an experimental design using 100 Turkish and 100 Dutch students who held part-time jobs. Confirming our expectations, a paternalistic leadership style had a more positive effect on job dedication and organizational support in Turkey than in the Netherlands. Contradicting our expectations, an empowering leadership style did not have a more positive effect on any of the OCB dimensions in the Netherlands than it did in Turkey. However, in the Netherlands an empowering leadership style had a stronger effect on interpersonal facilitation, job dedication, and organizational support than a paternalistic leadership style. Paternalistic and empowering leadership styles both had positive effects on OCB dimensions in Turkey. As expected, collectivism moderated the relationship between paternalistic leadership style and other oriented OCB (i.e., interpersonal facilitation). Specifically, people who had more collectivistic tendencies were more positively influenced by a paternalistic leader than people who had low collectivistic tendencies in both countries. However, individualism did not have any moderating effects on the relationship between empowering leadership style and self-oriented OCB (i.e., job dedication). Our findings are relevant for understanding the effects of leadership styles and cultural orientations on self- versus other-oriented OCB in Turkey and the Netherlands. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Social psychology and social network research are both centrally concerned with human sociality. Despite some historically significant interactions between the two, these areas of investigation have not been usefully deployed together in recent research endeavours. The present paper attempts to bring out some points of both theoretical and methodological contentions, to characterize the gap between them, to traverse briefly the trajectories of their historical development, and to provide some concrete instances of these differences. Intellectual resources available to Asian social psychology are reviewed, which may help bridge the gap between the two areas of research. We conclude by calling for a greater integration of social psychology and social network perspectives in future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Y. Takano and E. Osaka (2018, this issue) provide strong and irrefutable empirical evidence that the "common view"—that Japanese are typically collectivists whereas Americans are typically individualists—is not supported by data. Given other reviews in the past that have led to the same conclusion, in this commentary, I argue that now is the time for the field to take stock and reconsider this common view. This commentary briefly describes conceptual, empirical, and practical problems concerning the common view and offers suggestions to move beyond it. By moving beyond the common view, and other similar explanations of cross‐cultural differences, cross‐cultural researchers in particular can lead the way in facilitating a further evolution of research and theory about the link between cultures and individuals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It has been long believed that the Japanese are typical collectivists whereas Americans are typical individualists. To examine the validity of this common view, we formerly reviewed 15 empirical studies that compared Japanese and Americans regarding individualism/collectivism (I/C), and found that the overwhelming majority of those studies had not supported the common view (Takano & Osaka,). In this follow‐up, we reviewed 20 additional empirical studies (7 behavioral studies, 13 questionnaire studies), most of which had been published after the former review. When combined with the formerly reviewed 15 studies, 19 studies reported no clear difference, and 11 studies reported that Japanese were more individualistic than Americans. These 30 studies are inconsistent with the common view. Only 5 studies supported the common view, even when we included 3 studies whose validity was questionable. After it was formerly found that the common view was not supported empirically, a variety of alternative accounts were presented regarding the reason for this finding. We examined three major accounts in light of the reviewed studies and found that none of them was congruent with the empirical data. Thus, it seems to be reasonable to conclude that the common view is not valid. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We propose a new framework for understanding cultural differences in self-construal by noting the duality of this construct. Based on the analysis of the adaptive roles of self-construal, we predicted that a US-Japan difference in self-construal exists in the contrast between self-expression and rejection avoidance. We confirmed these predictions using newly constructed self-construal scales. Compared to Japanese respondents, American respondents were higher on self-expression and lower on rejection avoidance. Our findings regarding the contrast between distinctiveness of the self and harmony seeking, which are traditionally discussed as the core features of independence and interdependence, did not support the standard cultural psychological view. The two groups of respondents did not differ on distinctiveness of the self and the American respondents were higher on harmony seeking than were Japanese respondents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purposes of this study were to investigate how cultural values are related to counterproductive work behaviour (CWB), and to examine whether individuals' job stress acts as a mediator between cultural types and CWB. Using an anonymous questionnaire survey, the sample was comprised of 440 employees working in government institutes and private sectors in Thailand. The results show that job stress not only has a direct relationship to CWB, but also partially mediates the relationship between cultural values and CWB. The strong mediating links were between horizontal collectivism and CWB and between vertical individualism and CWB. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study examined the practice of forgiveness among participants from China ( N = 172) and New Zealand ( N = 91). We tested a theoretical model describing the relationships between collectivism, individualism, and forgiveness. Participants from China were more collectivistic and less individualistic than were participants from New Zealand. Overall, participants from New Zealand were more forgiving than were participants from China. Collectivism was positively related to decisional forgiveness in Chinese participants. Decisional forgiveness independently predicted conciliatory behaviour among participants from China, but this was not the case for participants from New Zealand. Thus, the hypothesized model received qualified support. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chronic or situational self-construal moderates the effects of four self-congruity (SC) dimensions (i.e., actual, ideal, social, and ideal social) on brand evaluations. Past research has mainly focused on the actual and ideal SC effects; these effects have been found to be stronger than the social and ideal social SC effects. However, the findings of past research are based on samples from individualistic cultures. Individualists have a dominant independent self-construal. We conduct two experiments to show that the social and ideal social SC effects are stronger than the actual and ideal SC effects for individuals with a dominant interdependent self-construal. In Study 1, using samples from collectivistic cultures, four SC effects are compared. In Study 2, we examine how primed self-construal, whether independent or interdependent, impacts the four SC effects. This research documents the importance of the social and ideal social dimensions in SC research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The definitions of individualism/collectivism and the content of scale items used to assess them could explain the lack of cross-cultural differences reported in some research. Specifically, existing scales may not adequately assess expected cultural differences. In study 1 , a new scale was given in Japan and the USA. Three factors were identified in both cultures. Japanese scored higher on the others focus factor but scored lower on the helping others factor than the US Americans. In study 2 , a forced choice version replicated results in study 1 . In studies 3 and 4 , the factor structure and cultural differences were replicated and the convergent and the divergent validities of the scale were examined. Results indicate that Japanese may be more others oriented depending on the item content. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Differences in emotional- and identity-relatedness with parents were explored across two cultural groups (863 university students from the USA and Turkey, representing individualist and collectivist societies, respectively) in Study 1 , and across two socioeconomic status (SES) groups (353 high school students from the upper and lower SES in Turkey) in Study 2 . In both studies, within-cultural differences in emotional- and identity-relatedness with parents were also explored in terms of: (i) self-directed and other-directed value orientations; and (ii) self-types, as suggested by the Balanced Integration-Differentiation Model. Results indicated cultural groups to be quite similar in emotional-relatedness, but to differ in relatedness of identities, with Turks reporting more related identities. Similarly, in Turkey, SES seemed to have more impact on identities than on emotional closeness, the lower SES adolescents reporting more relatedness with parents than upper SES adolescents. Thus, relatedness of identities appeared to be more important than emotional relatedness in differentiating between cultural and SES contexts. Results involving different self-types and value orientations pointed to both cross-cultural similarities and within-cultural diversity in the two domains of relatedness. Theoretical implications of cross- and within-culture differences in emotional- and identity-relatedness with parents are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main assertion of this study was that degree of self-enhancement is determined by the modesty requirements prevailing in a culture rather than by its level of collectivism. Four Israeli subgroups (323 11th-grade students) were compared in a two-by-two design: type of living (kibbutz versus city) and level of religious observance (religious versus secular). The two kibbutz groups were found to be more collectivist than the urban groups, and the religious groups were found to be more modest than the secular groups. Results show that selfenhancement was related to level of religious observance and not to type of living. When modesty was statistically controlled for, the effect of level of religious observance was removed. It was also found that self-enhancement measures were predicted by modesty and not by collectivism facets. Thus, the data supported the study's main claim. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined differences in emotional expression, experience, and the coherence between expression and experience in idiocentric and allocentric individuals, who participated in a study similar to Ekman (1972) and Friesen's (1972) original display rule study. Encoders, classified as idiocentric or allocentric based on a measure of psychological culture, were unobtrusively videotaped as they viewed positive and negative films in two contexts – alone, and then a second time either alone or with an experimenter present. Subjective emotional responding was assessed following each of the film viewing sessions and, using the encoders' videotaped data, their emotional expressions were judged by a separate sample of decoders. Emotional expression and coherence differed as a function of encoder culture and viewing condition; experience did not. These findings replicate and extend the only other cross-cultural experiment of spontaneous emotional expressions in adults conducted over thirty years ago (Ekman, 1972; Friesen, 1972), and speak to the influence of culture as a socio-psychological construct, given that all participants were European American females. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A sample of 292 respondents, drawn from three locations, participated in a study designed to examine the effects of eighteen situations on the choice of collectivist and individualist behaviour and intentions, or their combinations. The findings indicated that concerns for family or family members evoked a purely collectivist behaviour. Compelling and urgent personal needs and goals in conflict with the interests of family or friends led to a mix of individualist and collectivist behaviour and intentions. Individualist behaviour intended to serve collectivist interests was the third most frequently opted choice. Respondents' education had a significant effect and other background variables had indeterminate effects on the choice of either purely collectivist or a mix of collectivist and individualist behaviour and intentions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous research has shown that collectivists prefer external whereas individualists prefer internal attributions. To test the findings' generality across social situations, we compared the two attributions in situations where either an individual was acting on a group (Individual-acting) or the reverse (Group-acting). As predicted, collectivists' (Beijing and Hong Kong Chinese) greater preference for externality, and individualists' (Wellington Europeans) greater preference for internality, occurred in individual- but not group-acting situations. Collectivists' (mainly Hong Kong) memory of events was better in group- than in individual-acting situations according to prediction, but the predicted reversal was not found among individualists. The collectivist/individualist categorizations of the samples were supported by measures of self-construal. Indigenous Chinese concepts of 'unity' ( tong tian ren ) and 'combination' ( he nei wai ) were discussed to throw light on attribution processes that are not readily accessible through the concepts of collectivism and individualism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It has long been believed that the Japanese are more collectivistic than the Americans. To assess the validity of this common view, we reviewed 15 empirical studies that compared these two nations on individualism/collectivism. Surprisingly, 14 studies did not support the common view; the only study that supported it turned out to bear little relevance to the ordinary definition of individualism/collectivism. An examination of the supportive evidence of the common view disclosed that this view had been formed on an unexpectedly flimsy ground. It further turned out that the wide acceptance of the common view may have been the result of the fundamental attribution error, which may have led to an underestimation of situational factors in interpreting the past obviously collectivistic behavior of the Japanese. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The cultural constructs of individualism and collectivism (I-C) have been closely identified with different conceptions of the self. In contrast to autonomous, abstract self-concepts, it has been argued that collectivists have concepts of self which are interdependent with others and connected with particular contexts. This study investigated the extent to which spontaneous social and contextual self-concepts were connected to each other and to individual-level I-C measures. Questionnaires were administered to adult employee samples in Australia and South-East Asia (N = 581). Although closely intertwined, social and contextual statements were able to be independently tested in relation to I-C. I-C was primarily related to the social-autonomous dimension of self. Controlling for social self-responses, contextual self-concepts were not independently related to any of the measures of I-C. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines some of the limitations of social psychology and shows how they can be remedied by increased attention to cross-cultural studies. For example, many of the key constructs of the discipline, such as self, conformity, control, intelligence, and well being, are culture bound. The author proposes directions in theory development and methodology that will incorporate cultural syndromes in social psychological theories. Also, the author gives examples of methodologies that can consider simultaneously attributes of the participants (including their culture), attributes of the actors and targets of action (including their culture), attributes of the setting and context of the study, the prior relationships of the actor and target, and the attributes of the behaviors under examination. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]