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High P M 10 concentrations are still a significant problem in many parts of the world. In many countries, including Poland, 50 μ g/m 3 is the permissible threshold for a daily average P M 10 concentration. The number of people affected by this threshold's exceedance is challenging to estimate and requires high-resolution concentration maps. This paper presents an application of random forests for downscaling regional model air quality results. As policymakers and other end users are eager to receive detailed-resolution P M 10 concentration maps, we propose a technique that utilizes the results of a regional CTM (GEM-AQ, with 2.5 km resolution) and a local Gaussian plume model. As a result, we receive a detailed, 250 m resolution P M 10 distribution, which represents the complex emission pattern in a foothill area in southern Poland. The random forest results are highly consistent with the GEM-AQ and observed concentrations. We also discuss different strategies of training random forest on data using additional features and selecting target variables. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper compares the emissions from vehicles including ICEVs (internal combustion engine vehicles) with equivalent emissions from BEVs (battery electric vehicles). Additionally, it analyzes the available source research and the specific energy mix for Poland based on carbon. Mathematical calculations estimate air pollutant emissions. To carry out the analysis and calculations, data were provided by the manufacturers of electricity consumption in the case of vehicles equipped with electric motors and the COPERT model for internal combustion engines. Air pollutants are considered: CO2, NOx, SOx, CO, and Total Suspended Particles (TSP). In addition to exhaust emissions, all solids emissions from road abrasion and tire and brake wear are also considered. The emission of pollutants is estimated based on the emission factors using the average mileage in Polish conditions. The paper compares emissions for three scenarios considering electric vehicles, combustion engine cars, and hybrid cars. Analyses show that introducing cars with electric engines into traffic at the expense of withdrawing vehicles with internal combustion engines is not favorable in Polish conditions. The analysis indicates that CO, CO2, and TSP emissions have decreased, while NOx and SOx emissions have increased. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Very low air quality in the Warsaw conurbation, Poland, similarly to the case in many large European cities, poses a serious threat to the residents' health, being a significant source of premature mortality. Many results presented in earlier publications indicated local heating installations and car traffic as the main emission categories responsible for this adverse population exposure, where the dominant polluting compounds are NOx, PM10, PM2.5, and BaP. The last two mainly originate from individual household heating installations, both in the city of Warsaw and in its vicinity. To reduce the health risk of air pollution, the city authorities have recently made fundamental decisions, related to the individual housing sector, aimed at the radical decarbonization of all heating installations in Warsaw and its surroundings. On the other hand, the ongoing modernization of the city's car fleet (including individual and public transport), taking into account the restrictive EU emission standards, as well as the quickly growing share of electric and hybrid cars (BEVs and PHEVs), gives a good prospect of a fundamental improvement in air quality in Warsaw conurbation. The main subject of the paper is a quantitative assessment of the air quality improvement in the current decade (by 2030), resulting from the above modernization activities. The final results are expressed as the attributed reduction in population exposure, which was found to be 28–30% with respect to NOx and PM, and the associated health risk, i.e., 204 fewer avoidable deaths with respect to NOx and 607 fewer with respect to PM2.5. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The vast majority of studies on heat-related mortality are focused on large cities. The aim of this study is to fill this research gap and to estimate the impact of high temperatures on the risk of death in smaller towns and villages. The results show that increased mortality is not only a problem in large cities. The risk of death, although usually slightly lower than in highly populated areas, may be higher for the age-related risk group. At temperatures above 35 °C, it may exceed 1.3 in smaller towns and even 1.6 in villages. The increase in mortality during five selected heat waves of high intensity and long duration was also studied for two regions of Poland: Małopolska and Wielkopolska. Towns with a population of less than 10,000 in Małopolska region, during the 2006 heatwave, experienced an increase in the number of deaths by as much as 18%. At the same time in the largest city of Małopolska-Kraków, the death toll rose by 4%. This paper also presents some differences between regions in terms of the impact of heat waves: in the lowland region of Wielkopolska, the mortality rate is generally higher than in the upland region of Małopolska. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of the paper was the determination of the effect of teleconnection patterns (North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO), Arctic Oscillation (AO), East Atlantic pattern (EA), East Atlantic/Western Russia (EAWR), and Scandinavian pattern (SCAND)) on changes in air and water temperature in Polish lakes. Correlations of circulation indices with air and lake water temperature were analysed in the monthly cycle. Deviations of values of such components in different phases of the analysed atmospheric circulations types from mean average from the years 1971 to 2015 were also determined. The research showed a variable effect of the atmospheric circulations types. The strongest effect on water temperature was observed in winter, when AO and NAO circulation showed particularly evident influence. Deviations of water temperature from mean values from the analysed multi-annual period generally oscillated around 1.0 °C, reaching a maximum value of 1.4 °C. The presented research shows the complexity of processes determining changes in lake water temperature, the course of which depends on many factors with both regional (e.g., ice cover on lakes) and local range (conditions of water exchange, human pressure). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper deals with issues related to analyzing the spread of air pollution and pollutants in large urban agglomerations, specifically, the search for causality between meteorological conditions and the concentrations of particular substances. The pollutants SO2 and PM10 were selected for analysis, which, in addition to NOx, CO, CO2 and PM2.5, contribute to smog, especially during the heating seasons. This analysis is particularly important because Polish environmental standards are more lenient than those in western EU states. Industrial activity, transport and heating systems based on coal-burning are still a big problem in Poland, and each year their gaseous and particulate emissions exceed air-quality limits. This paper presents a statistical analysis of data recorded at the air-quality monitoring station on Kossuth Street in Katowice concerning the heating seasons from 2013–2016. The verification of proposed parabolic models containing concentrations from previous time periods and statistically significant meteorological conditions was conducted for individual heating seasons as well for the whole set of data, which included the influence of wind speed and temperature. The models obtained proved that the selected form of a model is statistically significant, and its use may produce satisfactory forecast results and permit various environmental applications. The specified model might be used both for forecasting (verification and possibly updating coefficients to increase forecast accuracy) and analyzing the factors influencing pollution values. Such statistical analysis may be helpful in assessing the impact of measures adopted to reduce air pollution, particularly in large Polish cities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Influences of animals, time of day, air temperature and relative humidity, wind speed and direction on ammonia concentrations were investigated. A case study on a typical summer day from 7:00 to approximately 24:00 CEST (moderate wind speed, variable cloudiness and maximum global radiation higher than 950 W/m2) in west–central Poland is presented. Concentrations of this gas were measured at four heights (0.1–1.5 m), which were changed every 5 min, using a Nitrolux 1000 photoacoustic spectrometer. A micrometeorological station was established to also measure the surface energy budget components. The results presented are the average for each hour and for the entire day. The fine structure of concentration profiles, plume detection and uncertainty of ammonia flux calculation are also presented. The highest NH3 concentrations were at a 0.5 m height between 16:00 and 17:00 h when cows were grazing, but the lowest concentrations were between 23:00 and 24:00 h at the height of 1.5 m. The ammonia concentration increased with increasing air temperature and was the highest with a westerly wind direction and decreased with increasing air relative humidity. The greatest influence on the ammonia concentration was related to the presence of cows and the time of day, while a slightly smaller influence was noted in terms of air temperature and wind direction. A case study is suitable for presenting local effects, inhomogeneities and quantifying uncertainties in the bidirectional ammonia flux calculation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Buildings consume energy, which is a major contributor to greenhouse gas emissions. In order to reduce their environmental impact, it is important to choose suitable building materials and energy source. The paper presents the results of a multi-variant analysis of five environmental impact categories (global warming potential, acidification, eutrophication, ozone layer depletion, and total use of primary energy) for a single-family house located in Poland in a 25-year life cycle. The tests were carried out for two different types of building structures (brick and wooden), two variants of external partition insulation, and four heat sources. The following computer programs were used for the calculations: OpenStudio and EnergyPlus, and One Click LCA. The analysis took into account the erection of the building in its shell and the energy consumption for heating in a 25-year life cycle. Studies have shown that when an electric heat source is used, the use stage has the greatest environmental impact, accounting for up to 80% of the total emissions over the life cycle. This ratio can be reduced by half in the case of a house with thicker external wall insulation and an eco-biomass boiler. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper studies surface air temperature inversions and their impact on air pollution under the background of meteorological conditions in southern Poland. The relationship of temperature gradients and air quality classes with weather conditions in the most urbanized and polluted part of Poland as represented by the Upper Silesia region (USR) within the administrative boundaries of the Górnośląsko-Zagłębiowska Metropolis (GZM) is presented. Based on probability analysis this study hierarchized the role of the selected weather elements in the development of surface-based temperature inversion (SBI) and air quality (AQ). The thresholds of weather elements for a rapid increase in the probability of oppressive air pollution episodes were distinguished. Although most SBI occurred in summer winter SBIs were of great importance. In that season a bad air quality occurred during >70% of strong inversions and >50% of moderate inversions. Air temperature more strongly triggered AQ than SBI development. Wind speed was critical for SBI and significant for AQ development. A low cloudiness favored SBI occurrence altered air quality in winter and spring during SBI and favored very bad AQ5 (>180 µg/m3) occurrence. The probability of high air pollution enhanced by SBI rapidly increased in winter when the air temperature dropped below −6 °C the wind speed decreased below 1.5 m/s and the sky was cloudless. Changes in the relative humidity did not induce rapid changes in the occurrence of bad AQ events during SBI [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main subject of this paper is an analysis of the influence of changes in the air pollution caused by road traffic, due to its modernization, on the air quality in Warsaw conurbation, Poland. Using the Calpuff model, simulations of the yearly averaged concentrations of NOx, CO, PM10, and PM2.5 were performed, together with an assessment of the population exposure to individual pollutions. Source apportionment analysis indicates that traffic is the main source of NOx and CO concentrations in the city atmosphere. Utilizing the Euro norms emission standards, a scenario of vehicle emission abatement is formulated based on the assumed general vehicle fleet modernization and transition to Euro 6 emission standards. Computer simulations show a reduction in NOx concentrations attributed to emission mitigation of passenger cars, trucks and vans, and public transport buses, respectively. On the other hand, improving air quality in terms of CO concentrations depends almost exclusively on gasoline vehicle modernization. The implementation of the considered scenario causes an adequate reduction in the population exposure and related health effects. In particular, implementation of the scenario discussed results in a 47% reduction (compared with the baseline value) in the attributable yearly deaths related to NOx pollution. In spite of a substantial contribution of vehicle traffic to the overall PM pollution, modernization of the fuel combustion causes only minor final effects because the dominant share of PM pollution in Warsaw originates from the municipal sector and the transboundary inflow. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For many years, the Polish air quality modelling system was decentralized, which significantly hampered the appropriate development of methodologies, evaluations, and comparisons of modelling results. The major contributor to air pollution in Poland is the residential combustion sector. This paper demonstrates a novel methodology for residential emission estimation utilized for national air quality modelling and assessment. Our data were compared with EMEP and CAMS inventories, and despite some inequalities in country totals, spatial patterns were similar. We discuss the shortcomings of the presented method and draw conclusions for future improvements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study objective was to characterise biometeorological conditions during the long May weekend (1–3 May) in Poland in the period 1966–2020 and determine baric conditions causing their variability. The conducted research employed data such as air temperature, relative humidity, wind speed, and total cloudiness. The aforementioned data were collected at 12:00 UTC. In the first year of the conducted study, the Universal Thermal Climate Index (UTCI) was calculated for the period of 1–3 May in the years 1966–2020. Next, circulation conditions were analysed in the designated groups based on daily sea level atmospheric pressure values and isobaric surface height of 500 hPa. This study evidenced the occurrence of variable biometeorological conditions during the long May weekend in Poland. The lowest index values were recorded at the coast of the Baltic Sea and in Northeast Poland, and the highest in the southern and western regions. On the analysed days of May in the years 1966–2020, days classified as days with no thermal stress were recorded the most frequently, followed by days with cold stress, and days with warm stress that occurred sporadically. People planning tourist activity on the analysed days should be prepared for diverse biometeorological conditions, from those causing cold stress to those causing heat stress. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this research was to determine relationships between solar activity and variability of discharges of three Central European rivers: the Vistula, Odra and Warta in Poland in the multi-annual period of 1901–2020. Changes in precipitation and air temperature at Poznań meteorological station in the same period were also analyzed. The long-term variations in river runoff were investigated both from the point of view of temporal variability in relation to climate variations in the study area, and from the point of view of linear/non-linear links to solar activity, as described by the Wolf sunspot number. The wavelet transform analysis was used to highlight the frequency-time distribution of the coherences between solar and discharge variability. It was found that most of the links between solar activity and discharges were non-linear. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Kłodzko Land is one of the most important regions of Poland in terms of tourism and health issues. Numerous tourism attractions and health resorts make the region attractive for both tourist and bathers. The goal of this paper was to evaluate the impact of weather conditions on tourism-related conditions and their changes in the multiannual period. In the analysis, the indices of heat days, the UTCI (Universal Thermal Climate Index) and CTIS (Climate Tourism Information Scheme) tools were used. The research on heat days and the UTCI indicated a significant increase in the heat-stress frequency over the last decades. Simultaneously, the number of weather types related to cold stress has considerably decreased. Such trends were noticed in the entire region, in all the considered hypsometric zones. The rising tendency was also observed for strong and very strong heat stress (UTCI > 32 °C), which negatively affects health problems. The analysis showed that the most extreme thermal and biothermal conditions, in terms of heat stress, occur under southern and eastern anticyclonic circulation. The CTIS analysis showed that favorable weather conditions for most of tourism activities are noticed in the warm half-year. The usefulness of weather conditions for tourism can vary depending on atmospheric circulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The TROPOMI instrument aboard Sentinel-5P is a relatively new, high-resolution source of information about atmosphere composition. One of the primary atmospheric trace gases that we can observe is nitrogen dioxide. Thanks to TROPOMI capabilities (high resolution and short revisit time), one can describe regional and seasonal N O 2 concentration patterns. Thus far, such patterns have been analysed by either ground measurements (which have been limited to specific locations and only to the near-surface troposphere layer) or numerical models. This paper compares the TROPOMI and GEM-AQ derived vertical column densities (VCD) over Poland, focusing on large point sources. Although well established in atmospheric science, the GEM-AQ simulations are always based on emission data, which in the case of the energy sector were reported by stack operators. In addition, we checked how cloudy conditions influence TROPOMI results. Finally, we tried to link the N O 2 column number densities with surface concentration using boundary layer height as an additional explanatory variable. Our results showed a general underestimation of N O 2 tropospheric column number density by the GEM-AQ model (compared to the TROPOMI). However, for the locations of the most significant point sources, we noticed a systematic overestimation by the GEM-AQ model (excluding spring and summer months when TROPOMI presents larger N O 2 VCDs than GEM-AQ). For the winter months, we have found TROPOMI N O 2 VCD results highly dependent on the choice of qa_value threshold. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, black carbon (BC) has been gaining more attention due to the diversity of anthropogenic sources and the harmful effects on human health, environment, and climate. In this paper, for the first time in Poland, the results of long-term measurements of eBC concentrations (2009–2020) at the urban background station in Zabrze (southern Poland) are presented. A Multi-Angle Absorption Photometer (MAAP) was used, which enables the measurement of eBC concentration in fine particulate matter (PM2.5). The mean concentration of eBC over the 11-year period (3.82 μg·m−3) was higher compared to the values recorded at most European urban stations. Annual averaged eBC levels showed a downward trend and clear seasonal variations, which was caused mainly by changes in the intensity of anthropogenic emissions. The impact of meteorological parameters, in particular air temperature and wind speed, which determine the intensity of emissions and the conditions of pollutant dispersion, was not without significance. The work additionally attempts to assess the possible impact of remedial actions carried out in Zabrze over the last decade. The results showed that modernization in industry and heating and maintenance of green areas potentially had the most important impact on the decline in eBC concentrations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Surface ozone is usually measured in national networks, including the monitoring of gaseous components important for determining air quality and the short-term forecast of surface ozone. Here we consider the option of forecasting surface ozone based on measurements of only surface ozone and several weather parameters. This low-cost configuration can increase the number of locations that provide short-term surface ozone forecast important to local communities. 24 h prediction of the 1-h averaged concentration of surface ozone were presented for rural (Belsk, 20.79° E, 51.84° N) and suburban site (Racibórz, 18.19° E, 50.08° N) in Poland for the period 2018–2021 via simple statistical models dealing with a limited number of predictors. Multiple linear regression (MLR) and artificial neural network (ANN) models were examined separately for each season of the year using temperature, relative humidity, an hour of the day, and 1-day lagged surface ozone values. The performance of ANN (with R2 = 0.81 in Racibórz versus R2 = 0.75 at Belsk) was slightly better than the MLR model (with R2 = 0.78 in Racibórz versus R2 = 0.71 at Belsk). These statistical models were compared with advanced chemical–transport models provided by the Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service. Despite the simplicity of the statistical models, they showed better performance in all seasons, with the exception of winter. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Indoor air contamination in office rooms is regarded as one of the most important issues in the protection of workers' health, because contaminants, even those occurring at low concentrations, can cause health problems for the office staff in view of the long exposure time. This paper presents the results of measurements of benzene and its alkyl derivatives (toluene, ethylbenzene, xylenes, styrene, and 1,3,5-trimethylbenzene)—known indicators of human exposure to volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the air in newly renovated offices at University of Technology (Upper Silesia, Poland). Monthly samples of indoor and outdoor air were collected during the years 2018–2019 by passive methods and analyzed by thermal desorption-gas chromatography with flame ionization detector (TD-GC/FID). In the first month of measurements average concentrations of the sum of five VOCs under consideration was 127.7 µg/m3, then in subsequent months between 15.1 µg/m3 to 87.3 µg/m3. The average concentration of carcinogenic benzene was below 1.5 μg/m3. Toluene had the highest concentration among studied VOCs, accounting for as high as 60% and 84% of the total indoor and outdoor VOCs, respectively. High indoor-to-outdoor (I/O) ratios for ethylbenzene (7.1), m,p-xylene (9.8), and styrene (12.5) indicate the dominant role of indoor sources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The primary objective of the paper was to characterize the climatic conditions in the winter season in Poland in the years 1966/67–2019/20. The study was based on daily values of minimum (Tmin) and maximum air temperature (Tmax), and daily values of snow cover depth. The study showed an increase in both Tmin and Tmax in winter. The most intensive changes were recorded in north-eastern and northern regions. The coldest winters were recorded in the first half of the analyzed multiannual period, exceptionally cold being winters 1969/70 and 1984/85. The warmest winters occurred in the second half of the analyzed period and among seasons with the highest mean Tmax, particularly winters 2019/20 and 1989/90 stood out. In the study period, a decrease in snow cover depth statistically significant in the majority of stations in Poland was determined, as well as its variability both within the winter season and multiannual. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Due to the unwavering interest of both residents and authorities in the air quality of urban agglomerations, we pose the following question in this paper: What impact do current and past meteorological factors and traffic flow intensity have on air quality? What is the impact of lagged variables on the fit of an explanation model, and how do they affect its ability to predict? We focused on NO2 and NOx concentrations, and conducted this research using hourly data from the city of Wrocław (western Poland) from 2015 to 2017; we used multi-objective optimization to determine the optimal delays. It turned out that for both NO2 and NOx, the past values for traffic flow, wind speed, and sunshine duration are more important than the current ones. We built random forest models on each of the pollutants for both the current and past values and discovered that including a lagged variable increases the resulting R2 from 0.51 to 0.56 for NO2 and from 0.46 to 0.52 for NOx. We also analyzed the feature importance in each model, and found that for NO2, a wind speed delay of more than three hours causes a significant decrease, while the importance of relative humidity increases with a seven-hour delay; likewise, wind speed increases the importance for NOx prediction with a two-hour delay. We concluded that, in pollutant concentration modeling, the possibility of a delayed effect of the independent variables should always be considered, because it can significantly increase the performance of the model and suggest unexpected relationships or dependencies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is well documented that Southern Poland is one of the most polluted areas in Europe due to the highest airborne concentrations of particulate matter (PM). Concentrations of fine particles are especially high in winter. Apart from detailed number concentrations, it is essential to accurately identify and quantify specific particulate pollution sources. Only a few Polish research centers are involved in such experiments—among them is Krakow research group. For the most part, research focuses on collecting 24-h average samples from stationary PM samplers at ambient monitoring sites and quantifying the specific elements and chemical constituents in PM. This approach includes modeling methods that can use the variability in physical and chemical PM characteristics as an input dataset to identify possible sources of the particles. The objective of this paper is to provide research results based on data collected from June 2018 to May 2019 from a single monitoring station at a central urban site. Careful comparison of data obtained prior to a 2019 law prohibiting solid fuel burning in the city of Krakow with data (2019–2020) when a regulation went into effect should indicate progress by noting lower PM levels. This work has shown that the method applied and Krakow results might be of interest to the broader community in regions of high PM concentration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Bydgoszcz region (Poland) is located in an area with a very high demand for supplementary irrigation during the vegetation period of plants. The projected global warming will bring a rise in the water needs of crops, and thus a further increase in irrigation needs. The goal of the study was an attempt to estimate the water needs of sweet cherry trees in 2021–2050 (forecast period) in the region of Bydgoszcz. The years 1981–2010 were adopted as the reference period. The water needs of sweet cherry trees were calculated on the basis of air temperature using the Treder method, in which water needs are equated with the potential evapotranspiration of a given fruit tree species. It was found that in the growing season of the forecast period, the relative diversity of sweet cherries' water needs was relatively small (7%). The highest variability of monthly water needs was in April, May, and June. The seasonal water needs amounted to 573 mm, with very high monthly water needs noted in July (139 mm) and August (134 mm). A significant trend of the time variability of water needs was calculated only in August. During this month, it is predicted that the water needs will rise by 5 mm in each subsequent decade. These results will be helpful in the design of sweet cherry irrigation treatments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this research is to compare daily sunshine duration data measured using a Campbell–Stokes sunshine recorder (CS) and a CSD3 sunshine duration sensor. This was undertaken because in recent decades automatic sunshine duration sensors have been systematically replacing traditional sunshine recorder. This replacement created a problem with the data quality, and the continuity of homogeneous series. The study material consisted of the daily sunshine duration sums derived from synchronous manual and automated measurements at the Borucino station (northern Poland) for the years 2015–2021. Comparison covered the daily and monthly sums and their statistical distributions. In most cases, the daily sum recorded by the sensor CSD3 was higher than that measured by the CS. On average, higher values of sums were obtained from CSD3 for all months of the year, with the exception of June. This can be explained by the higher sensitivity threshold of the CS, as well as by the difference in height of both instruments above the station's level. Higher daily totals recorded by the CS than by the CSD3 occurred not only in June. The cause was most likely the so-called "overburning effect". Monthly regression equations were determined, allowing for substitution of the CS measurement results with the values recorded automatically. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rainfall expected to occur in a given period is defined as dependable rainfall. The increasing pressure on freshwater resources necessitates efficient water use in the agricultural sector, where water is used the most globally. Therefore, dependable rainfall values in dry (80%), normal (50%) and wet (20%) periods, which are used in the planning and operation stages of irrigation networks, can be determined by analysis. In this study, the change in the irrigation water requirement of apple trees was investigated based on the dependable rainfall of Warsaw and Isparta, two important apple production regions of Poland and Turkey. For this purpose, dependable rainfall values in both locations between 1984 and 2021 were calculated monthly and annually with the Rainbow program. Then, using the climate parameters of the relevant years, plant water consumption and irrigation water requirements were calculated with the help of Cropwat software. As a result of the research, rainfall values expected to occur in the dry, normal and rainy years in Warsaw are 466 mm, 532 mm and 604 mm, respectively, while, in Isparta, these values are 422 mm, 520 mm and 602 mm, respectively. Crop water requirements calculated based on dependable rainfall are 363 mm, 237 mm and 108 mm in Warsaw during the dry, normal and wet periods, while these values are 452 mm, 367 mm and 277 mm, respectively, in Isparta. The application of appropriate irrigation rates that take into account water requirements will optimize the use of water resources and also improve apple yields. This is extremely important for these research areas in particular, as Turkey and Poland are among the largest apple producers in the world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper provides the results of the inventory of greenhouse gases (GHGs) from road transport in Poland over the period 1990–2017. To estimate GHGs' emission from road transport, a standardized methodology was applied, consistent with 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories and EEA/EMEP Emission Inventory Guidebook 2019, as well as the COPERT 5 software. In the analysis, emissions of fossil carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide were taken into account. Emissions of all considered GHGs were converted to equivalent carbon dioxide. Throughout the subsequent years of emission inventory, emissions of all GHGs revealed an increasing trend, except for methane. The main cause underlying this increase is the dynamic development of motorization in Poland. Thus, GHGs' emissions were analyzed, taking into account the number of road vehicles and the intensity of their use. An increase in the average specific distance emission was found for fossil carbon dioxide (by ca. 5%) and for nitrous oxide (by ca. 10%), while for methane, there was a decrease (by more than 150%). The GHGs' emissions from road transport in Poland could be significantly lower if more emphasis was placed on the use of fuels from renewable energy sources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

(1) Background: The work presents results of concentration measurements of PM1, collected in the indoor air of four preschool buildings in Gliwice and its environs (Silesia Province) and in ambient air in the vicinity of four working hard coal power plants and four coking plants located in southern Poland. (2) Methods: The samples of <1 µm, 1–2.5 µm, 2.5–10 µm, and >10 µm fractions were collected with the use of Dekati® PM10 cascade impactor, and concentrations of seven trace elements (Cd, Cr, Mn, Ni, Pb, Sb, and Se) were determined. (3) Results: The concentrations of PM1 changed in the range of 3.1 μg/m3–65.3 μg/m3. Among trace elements, the highest concentrations in indoor air were evidenced for Cr (129–219 ng/m3), while in outdoor air for Pb (12.6–21.2 ng/m3). Principal Component Analysis PCA analysis extracted three factors of rural dusts, city dusts, and natural soils. (4) Conclusions: The paper points to accumulation of carcinogenic Cd, Cr, and Ni in indoor air, and significant contribution of trace elements in PM1, which, owing to long-lasting exposure and elevated sensitivity of developing organisms, may evoke effects on health of children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The results of the study on the characteristics of the viable (culturable) and total bacterial particles in the ambient air in Gliwice, Poland, are presented. The concentration of viable bacteria in the air ranged from 57 CFU m−3 (Colony Forming Units per cubic meter) during winter to 305 CFU m−3 in spring, while the concentration of all bacteria (live and dead) in the air, measured in selected days, ranged from 298 cells m−3 in winter to over 25 thousand per m3 in autumn. A field study was also carried out to find out the level of the sterilization rate (k) for airborne bacteria. The obtained value of k for viable bacteria exposed to UV solar radiation in Gliwice was approximately 10 cm2 W−1s−1. The patterns of the size distributions of viable bacteria found in three seasons, spring, summer, and autumn, were similar, showing a peak in the range of 3.3–4.7 µm. In the winter season, the main peak was shifted into the smaller particles with an aerodynamic diameter ranging from 2.1 to 4.7 µm. The dominant group of culturable bacteria within the studied period was Gram-positive rods-forming endospores (34–55%), while the least frequent were Gram-negative rods (2%). This research can be used to assess the health effects of exposure to bacterial aerosols in people living in this area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A novel methodology is formulated and investigated on test cases for the reconstruction of complete vertical aerosol extinction profiles in which a synergy of remote, in-situ, and airborne measurements is utilized. The GRASP Open aerosol retrieval algorithm is supplied with remote LIDAR and sunphotometer data to obtain aerosol extinction profiles within the LIDAR's operation range for coarse and fine aerosol modes separately. These are supplemented with ground-based in-situ measurements of particle size distribution that are translated to coarse and fine aerosol extinction coefficients with the use of Mie theory. UAV-based observations with optical particle counters are included to add information on vertical aerosol variability in the near-surface region. The profiles are closed with an analytical interpolation that is fine-tuned to produce continuous and smooth extinction profiles throughout the whole troposphere that are in agreement with columnar aerosol optical depth measurements. We present the possibility of reconstructing a complete and calibrated aerosol extinction profile, based on the case studies at a Central European background station. We include data-denial experiments to show that the inclusion of UAV-based measurements improves such reconstructions by providing crucial information on aerosol profiles near the ground. The proposed methodology can prove to be a potent tool for studies of aerosol concentration and evolution, especially when the majority of the pollution resides near the surface. Such conditions are prevalent in many highly industrialized regions, including central and southern Poland. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Soil moisture monitoring is crucial for a variety of activities involving soil water regime estimation. Different phenomena such as drought, exhibit impacts of a variable extent in the soil profile, requiring moisture content monitoring as well as reliable analyses of the soil properties. In the village of Solec, located in central Poland, monitoring of the moisture content was attempted for a sandy soil in order to estimate soil moisture distributions for two dry years (2015, 2016) and a wet one (2017). Simple and easily obtainable drought indices, such as dry spells, climatic water balance, groundwater table depth, soil water content and potential were estimated and related with spatiotemporal evolution of soil water conditions. Soil layers subject to drought were found to be different either from a moisture (15–45 cm) or soil water potential (10–25 cm), showing diverse physical properties and relations with the ground water table. The coherence of the analysed drought indices was proven for a light, sandy soil, which has national significance for the state, drought monitoring network. Knowledge obtained during previous studies, which omitted soil water conditions for this type of the soil was supplemented. Based on its own water content, the profile of the analysed soil (Stagnic Folic Gleysols–Arenic) exhibits a negative climatic water balance and requires irrigation practices to mitigate drought effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The change in the spatial distribution of agroclimatic conditions based on the sum of active temperatures (SAT), growing degree days (GDD), and latitude–temperature index (LTI) is discussed in this article. Data from 20 meteorological stations of IMGW-PIB (Institute of Meteorology and Water Management—National Research Institute) in Poland from the years 1966–2020 were used. The temporal and spatial diversity of mean air temperature and the chosen indices were analyzed for the period from April to October. Designating areas of diverse thermal conditions with respect to plant comfort on the basis of agroclimatic indices was attempted, together with mean air temperature and its temporal changes. The clustering, using the Ward's method, yielded four regions with different thermal resources in Poland. The study period showed an increase in the values of all agroclimatic indices and air temperature during the growing season, suggesting an increase in the thermal resources in the territory of Poland. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this work, the high-resolution spatial and temporal variability of precipitable water (PW) over Poland is presented. PW is one of the key parameters of the atmosphere taken into account in thermodynamic and radiation models. The daily PW values from years 2001–2010, calculated with the use of the WRF model, were compared with PW from soundings. The WRF modeled PW is in close agreement with measurements for the whole column of the troposphere and for individual levels: below 1.5 km, 1.5–3 km, 3–6 km and 6–10 km. The best agreement is observed in the lower part of the troposphere, especially for winter months. At the levels of 1.5 km to 10 km, the WRF model overestimates the PW values throughout the year, whereas up to 1.5 km PW is underestimated. The study shows an increasing trend of PW annual values between 1983 and 2010, but the trend is statistically insignificant. A significant positive trend with a high Sen's slope is observed for the summer season up to 3 km in the troposphere, along with a significant negative tendency for spring. The trends in PW over Poland and Central Europe identified in this study contribute to the ongoing discussion on the observed climate changes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This work was conducted to focus on pollutant transmission between Poland and Czechia at the most polluted area in the Czech Republic, the Moravian Silesian region. Instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA) and multivariate statistical analyses were used to determine the mass fractions of inorganic air pollutants accumulated on filters. Particle matters of sizes smaller than 10 µm (PM10) were collected using a high-volume sampler (SAM Hi 30 AUTO WIND). Pollutants PM10 were collected on Whatman QM-A Quartz Microfiber Filters of 150 mm in diameter based on various wind conditions. These filters were irradiated by neutron flux at the experimental reactor IBR-2 at the Joint Institute of Nuclear Research in Dubna, RF. Irradiated samples were measured by gamma spectrometry techniques using HPGe detectors. In total, results are shown for 49 samples (from March to July 2021) and five field blank filters. The mass fractions of 24 elements (Sc, Cr, Fe, Ni, Co, Zn, Se, As, Br, Rb, Mo, Sb, Ba, Cs, La, Ce, Sm, Eu, Tb, Yb, Hf, Au, Th, and U) were determined. The sources of pollution were specified using correlation and exploratory factor analyses and including meteorological conditions. A strong positive correlation was shown between the elements Cr, As, Br, Co, Fe, Sc, Se, Sm, Th, La, and Ce. Elemental exposure to PM10 can be divided based on the factor loadings of common chemical components into three main pollution sources. According to the wind rose, the pollution came from the southeast/west direction; therefore, we can assume that the pollution most likely originated from the metallurgic complex (steel and iron production in the southeast, and a coking plant, metal foundry, and generation plant in the west). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of the study is to estimate the trend in summer maximum air temperature extremes in Poland during the period 1951-2015 by demonstrating the changes in the magnitude of temperature anomalies, temperature "surplus", as well as the area influenced by extreme temperature occurrence. To express the latter two variables, daily maps of maximum air temperature were created to calculate the total area affected by temperature extremes. To combine the effect of spatial extent and temperature anomaly, an Extremity Index was introduced. The results confirmed an increase in summer maximum air temperature of about 0.4 °C per 10 years, evidenced also in the increase of summer extremeness. Positive anomalies have dominated since the 1990s, with the largest anomalies occurring during the summers of 1992, 1994, 2010 and finally 2015, the most exceptional summer during the analyzed period. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Suspended particles with aerodynamic diameters not greater than 1 µm (PM1) were sampled at the urban background; regional background; and urban traffic points in southern Poland. In total, 120 samples were collected between 2 August 2009 and 27 December 2010. Sixteen polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were determined in each sample. The samples were collected with a high volume sampler (Digitel). Afterwards, they were chemically analyzed with a gas chromatograph equipped with a flame ionization detector (Perkin Elmer Clarus 500). The mean concentration values of the PAH sum (ΕPAH) and particular PAHs; the percentages of carcinogenic PAHs in total PAHs (ΕPAHcarc/ΕPAH); carcinogenic equivalent (CEQ); mutagenic equivalent (MEQ); and TCDD-toxic equivalent (TEQ) were much higher in the winter (heating) season than in the summer (non-heating) one. For both periods, the resulting average values obtained were significantly higher (a few; and sometimes a several dozen times higher) in the researched Polish region than the values observed in other areas of the world. Such results indicate the importance of health hazards resulting from PM1 and PM1-bound PAHs in this Polish area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A strong and consistent association has been observed between morbidity or mortality rates and PM concentration, and is well documented in many countries. In Poland, despite poor air quality, studies concerning the evaluation of acute health effects of ambient air pollution on morbidity from respiratory or cardiovascular diseases are rare. We examined the short-term impact of PMx concentration on hospital admission in 31 Polish cities based on the daily PM10, PM2.5 concentration, meteorological variables, and hospital data. The generalized additive model (GAM) and a random-effects meta-analysis were used to assess the impact of air pollution on morbidity within the exposed population. Almost 1.6 million cardiovascular admissions and 600 thousand respiratory disorders were analyzed. The RR values for PM10-related cardiovascular and respiratory hospital admissions in Poland are equal to 1.0077 (95% confidence interval, 1.0062 to 1.0092) and 1.0218 (95% confidence interval, 1.0182 to 1.0253), respectively, while for PM2.5 1.0088 (95% confidence interval, 1.0072 to 1.0103) and 1.0289 (95% confidence interval, 1.0244 to 1.0335), respectively. Moreover, a moderate heterogeneity of RR estimates was observed between the analyzed cities (I2 values from 27% to 45%). The presented analysis confirms the significant association between hospital admission and PMx concentration, especially during heating seasons. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article is occupied with the evaluation of the transboundary transport of pollutants in the Czech–Polish border region (between the Moravian-Silesian region and the Silesian Voivodeship) in Central Europe. It focuses on the evaluation of concentrations of benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) and suspended particles of PM10 depending on meteorological conditions, especially wind direction. The whole area of interest is heavily affected with air pollution of BaP and PM10. Limits of BaP and PM10 are still exceeded. Annual concentrations of benzo[a]pyrene are even several times higher than the value of its annual limit. The elaboration follows the results of the Czech–Polish project "Air Silesia", which dealt with air pollution and the transboundary transport of pollutants in this area and took place in 2010 to 2013. Within this project, a higher transport of pollutants from Poland to the Czech Republic was established. The evaluation of the dependences of PM10 concentrations is based on hourly and daily data of PM10 and hourly data of meteorological quantities. To assess the dependences of daily BaP and PM10 concentrations, a methodology for evaluating daily types of wind direction was implemented into the processing. The results confirm that the problem of above-limit concentrations of BaP and PM10 in the Moravian-Silesian Region in the Czech Republic and the Silesian Voivodeship in Poland remains. The article confirms there is a higher transport of PM10 concentrations from Poland to the Czech Republic in the area of interest. Higher transport in the same direction is also predicted for daily concentrations of benzo[a]pyrene, although this cannot be clearly confirmed due to the lack of more detailed and identifiable data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research Highlights: This study used a 99-year time-series of daily climatic data to determine the climate-growth relationship for Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) growing in Northern Poland. The use of daily climatic data improved the calculated climatic response of the trees. Background and Objectives: It was hypothesised that daily temperature and precipitation data would more precisely identify climate–growth relationships than monthly data. We compared our results to a previous study conducted in the 1990s that utilised monthly precipitation and temperature data. Materials and Methods: The chronology construction and data analyses were performed using CooRecorder, CDendro and R packages (dplR, treeclim, dendrotools). Forty-nine cores from 31 trees were included in the final chronology. Results: The precipitation and temperature of March had the strongest influence upon ring-widths. Despite a statistically significant correlation between monthly temperature and ring-widths, reduction of error (RE) and coefficient of efficiency (CE) statistics confirmed that daily data better describe the effect of climate on tree rings width than monthly data. Conclusions: At this site, the growing season of Scots pine has changed with the observed association with precipitation now starting as early as February–March and extending to June–July. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Poland-AOD aerosol research network was established in 2011 to improve aerosol–climate interaction knowledge and provide a real-time and historical, comprehensive, and quantitative database for the aerosol optical properties distribution over Poland. The network consists of research institutions and private owners operating 10 measurement stations and an organization responsible for aerosol model transport simulations. Poland-AOD collaboration provides observations of spectral aerosol optical depth (AOD), Ångstrom Exponent (AE), incoming shortwave (SW) and longwave (LW) radiation fluxes, vertical profiles of aerosol optical properties and surface aerosol scattering and absorption coefficient, as well as microphysical particle properties. Based on the radiative transfer model (RTM), the aerosol radiative forcing (ARF) and the heating rate are simulated. In addition, results from GEM-AQ and WRF-Chem models (e.g., aerosol mass mixing ratio and optical properties for several particle chemical components), and HYSPLIT back-trajectories are used to interpret the results of observation and to describe the 3D aerosol optical properties distribution. Results of Poland-AOD research indicate progressive improvement of air quality and at mospheric turbidity during the last decade. The AOD was reduced by about 0.02/10 yr (at 550 nm), which corresponds to positive trends in ARF. The estimated clear-sky ARF trend is 0.34 W/m2/10 yr and 0.68 W/m2/10 yr, respectively, at TOA and at Earth's surface. Therefore, reduction in aerosol load observed in Poland can significantly contribute to climate warming. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The summer 2019 drought in Poland, i.e., the warmest year in observation history, was characterized. Meteorological, agricultural, hydrological, and hydrogeological aspects were taken into account. Meteorological drought in the light of regionally differentiated days of low precipitation frequency lasted the longest, i.e., over 3 months in central-western Poland. In the period between June–August 2019, in the belt of South Baltic Lakes and Central Polish Lowlands, the lowest precipitation sums of 30–60% of the norm were recorded. The values of the climatic water balance (CWB) calculated by the Institute of Soil Science and Plant Cultivation (IUNG) method for individual months of June–August for the Polish area were −129, −64, and −53 mm, respectively. The most threatened were fruit bushes, spring cereals, maize for grain and silage, and leguminous plants. In central-western and south-western Poland, the drought accelerated the date of the lowest flows by two months on average from the turn of September and October to the turn of July and August. In the lowland belt, where the drought was the most intensive, the average monthly groundwater level, both of free and tight groundwater table, was lower than the monthly averages for the whole hydrological year. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the most important minor species in the atmosphere is nitrogen dioxide (NO2). The primary objective of the presented research was to propose a method to adjust emission inventories (emission fluxes) using tropospheric NO2 columns observed by OMI and SCIAMACHY instruments. Modified emission fluxes were used in a chemical weather model GEM-AQ. The GEM-AQ model results were compared with the monthly averaged satellite-derived column amount of NO2 over Europe for the 2008–2010 observing period. It was shown that the observed and modelled spatial distribution of high values of the NO2 column is highly correlated with the distribution of major anthropogenic sources in the modelling domain. The presented findings highlight the importance of the anthropogenic sources in the overall budget of NO2 in the polluted troposphere. Regions for which modelling results showed underestimation or overestimation compared with observations were constant for the whole analysis period. Thus, the NO2 column observations could be used for correcting emission estimates. The proposed emission correction method is based on the differences in modelled and satellite-derived NO2 columns. Modelling was done for 2011 using the original and adjusted emission inventories and compared with observed NO2 columns. The analysis was extended to compare modelling results with surface NO2 observations from selected air quality stations in Poland. A significant improvement in modelling results was obtained over regions with large overestimations in the control run for which the original emission fluxes were used. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In large urban agglomerations, car traffic is one of the main sources of particulate matter. It consists of particulate matter directly generated in the process of incomplete liquid fuel burning in vehicle engine, secondary aerosols formed from exhaust gaseous pollutants (NOx, SO2) as well as products of tires, brake pads and pavement abrasion. Krakow is one of the cities in Europe with the highest concentrations of particulate matter. The article presents the results of combined elemental, chemical and isotopic analyses of particulate matter PM10 at two contrasting urban environments during winter and summer seasons. Daily PM10 samples were collected during the summer and winter seasons of 2018/2019 at two stations belonging to the network monitoring air quality in the city. Mean PM10 concentrations at traffic-dominated stations were equal to 35 ± 7 µg/m3 and 76 ± 28 µg/m3 in summer and winter, respectively, to be compared with 25.6 ± 5.7 µg/m3 and 51 ± 25 µg/m3 in summer and winter, respectively, recorded at the urban background station. The source attribution of analyzed PM10 samples was carried out using two modeling approaches: (i) The Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF) method for elemental and chemical composition (concentrations of elements, ions, as well as organic and elemental carbon in daily PM10 samples), and (ii) Isotope Mass Balance (IMB) for 13C and 14C carbon isotope composition of carbonaceous fraction of PM10. For PMF application, five sources of particulate matter were identified for each station: fossil fuel combustion, secondary inorganic aerosols, traffic exhaust, soil, and the fifth source which included road dust, industry, construction work. The IMB method allowed the partitioning of the total carbon reservoir of PM10 into carbon originating from coal combustion, from biogenic sources (natural emissions and biomass burning) and from traffic. Both apportionment methods were applied together for the first time in the Krakow agglomeration and they gave consistent results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study objective was to characterise human-biometeorological conditions in the summer season in the period 1966–2019 in Poland, with particular consideration of June 2019. The study was conducted based on data from the Institute of Meteorology and Water Management—National Research Institute (IMGW–PIB) for the years 1966–2019. The data provided the basis for the calculation of the Universal Thermal Climate Index (UTCI). The study revealed high spatial variability of human-biometeorological conditions in Poland, with strenuous character intensifying from the north to the south of the country. An increase in UTCI in the summer season was recorded in the studied multi-annual period. It was the most intensive in the north-eastern Poland. The consequence of the observed changes was an increase in the frequency of days with heat stress categories (days with UTCI > 26.0 °C), and a decrease in the frequency of days with cold stress categories (days with UTCI < 9.0 °C). Season 2019 stood out at the scale of the entire country in the context of the multi-annual period. This particularly concerns June, when mean monthly UTCI values were the highest in the analysed multi-annual period. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study aims to identify long-term trends in the changes of drought occurrences using the Mann-Kendall (MK) test and the Theil-Sen estimator. Trend research was carried out on the example of the catchment area of the Upper Noteć River, which covers an agricultural area of Poland with some of the lowest water reserves. The meteorological droughts were identified based on the Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI), while the hydrological droughts were determined on the basis of the Standardized Runoff Index (SRI) in various time scales (1, 3, 6, 9 and 12 months) in the period of 1981–2016. The relationship between SPI and SRI was determined on the basis of the Pearson correlation analysis. The results showed that statistically significant trends (at the significance level of 0.05) were identified at 3 out of 8 meteorological stations (downward trend at Kłodawa station and upward trend for drought at Sompolno and Kołuda Wielka stations). Statistically significant hydrological droughts showed an increase in occurrences at the Łysek station, while a downward trend was noted at the Noć Kalina station. No trend was found at the Pakość station. The analysis of the correlation between meteorological and hydrological droughts showed a strong relationship in dry years. The maximum correlation coefficient was identified in longer accumulation periods i.e., 6 and 9 months. The example of the catchment of the Upper Noteć River points to the necessity of using several indicators in order to assess the actual condition of the water reserves. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study evaluates the health risks related to heavy metals (Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, Sb, Se, Zn, and metalloid As) in the indoor dust samples of total suspended particles (TSP) and particles with diameter <1 μm (PM1). The samples were collected during 5-day periods during the spring and winter seasons in the Upper Silesia region, Poland. The highest concentration among determined trace elements revealed Fe. The greatest concern expressed the concentration of carcinogenic Cd in PM1 (from 6.7 to 9.7 ng/m3), exceeding the permissible value 5 ng/m3 (for PM10). The carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic health risks were assessed for three exposure pathways (inhalation, ingestion, and dermal contact) for preschool children. None of the single trace elements obtained the Hazard Quotient Index (HQ > 1) or carcinogenic risks above the upper acceptable limit (1 × 10−4). However, the cumulative HQ values (ΣHQ) for three exposure pathways were greater than the safe level. The highest cumulative non-carcinogenic risk presented the TSP in rural kindergartens (2.0 × 10−4). In the same location as the TSP, the highest carcinogenic risk was also observed (9.1 × 10−4). High carcinogenic risks (>10−4) were found for the ingestion pathway of TSP inside urban and rural kindergartens and of PM1 in urban ones. A comparative evaluation shows that the health risks of trace elements in airborne particles in Polish kindergartens bring high risk. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bioaerosol, particulate matter concentration and antibiotic resistance of airborne Staphylococcus was assessed in animal and public premises (classroom, sports hall, horse stable, cowshed, newborn calf shed and outdoor background control site) of Poland's oldest agricultural school. The concentration and size distribution of bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes and staphylococci were assessed with a six stage Andersen impactor. Particulate matter (PM10, PM4, PM2.5 and PM1) was determined using the DustTrak aerosol monitor. The Staphylococcus species were determined with MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry and antimicrobial resistance was assessed using disk diffusion. Bioaerosol concentrations differed significantly between sampling points, with the highest levels of all microorganisms occurring in the newborn calf shed. The proportion of respirable fraction exceeded 60% in all sites, indicating potential harmfulness to exposed people. Mean concentrations of particulate matter were the smallest in school rooms and the highest in the newborn calf shed. Neither particulate matter nor microbial aerosol exceeded threshold values for workplaces. Among thirty-four isolated staphylococcal strains, S. equorum (35%), S. succinus (26%) and S. xylosus (15%) were the most prevalent. Resistance to macrolides (erythromycin) and lincosamides (clindamycin) was the most frequent. One strain was methicillin-resistant. Farm animals are significant sources of bioaerosol and therefore attention should be paid with respect to maintaining appropriate sanitary conditions and hygiene of premises and animals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Solubility of transition metal compounds plays a significant role in adverse health effects because that is one of the most important factors of particulate matter bioavailability in the body. In this study, we focus on the chemical analysis of particulate matter (PM) collected at different locations in the area of Kraków, one of the most polluted cities in Poland, and compare them with Standard Reference Material (SRM) 1648a from NIST. The content of four elements (carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and sulfur) was determined by elemental analysis, and the ratio between organic and inorganic carbon in PM extracts was confirmed by Total Organic Carbon analysis. Among the most concentrated elements found there are calcium, magnesium, sulfur, silicon, and zinc, whereas copper, iron, and manganese were present in lower concentrations. SEM-EDS analysis showed a similar morphology of the SRM and PM collected in the urban area of Kraków, while PM collected in the industrial area has smaller particles with a smooth surface. The reported analyses are significant for the APARIC project ("Air Pollution versus Autoimmunity: Role of multiphase aqueous Inorganic Chemistry"), which aims to identify the main inorganic components of PM and to understand how they affect the development of immunological diseases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated the usefulness of three methods: (1) Press, (2) Grabarczyk and Rzekanowski, and (3) Treder, in estimating the water needs of apple, pear, cherry and plum trees grown in central Poland, where particular water deficits are observed. The assessments were based on meteorological data for the growing seasons 1989–2020. Orchard irrigation requires a simple and accessible method of estimating plant water requirements. The average water needs assessed for apple ranged from 435 mm (Press) to 729 mm (Grabarczyk and Rzekanowski), for pear between 353–699 mm (Grabarczyk and Rzekanowski), for cherry between 315 mm (Press) and 660 mm (Grabarczyk and Rzekanowski), and plum ranged from 455 mm (Press) to 718 mm (Grabarczyk and Rzekanowski). Regardless of the method used, precipitation in the studied period did not cover the water needs of the fruit trees. Additionally, there was a tendency to increase the water requirements of the plants. In each method, water needs in the second and third decades were higher than in the first. The highest water needs of the fruit trees were calculated using the Treder method, and the lowest using the Press method. In practice, each of the methods can be used to forecast the water needs of fruit plants, but the Treder method seems to be the simplest and most accessible. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Global solar radiation is an important atmospheric stimulus affecting the human body and has been used in heliotherapy for years. In addition to environmental factors, the effectiveness of global solar radiation is increasingly influenced by human activity. This research was based on the use of heliographic and actinometric data (1996–2015) and the model distribution of global solar radiation to determine the possibility of heliotherapy with the example of two health resorts: Cieplice and Kołobrzeg (Poland). The solar features of health resorts (sunshine duration and global solar radiation) were characterized, and they were correlated with the spatial distribution of global solar radiation data obtained with the use of remote sensing techniques (System for Automated Geoscientific Analyzes-SAGA), including COoRdination and INformation on the Environment (CORINE) land cover (CLC) data. Using the maximum entropy model (MaxEnt), a qualitative and quantitative relationship between morphometric parameters and solar climate features was demonstrated for individual land cover types. Studies have shown that the period of late spring and summer, due to the climate's solar features, is advisable for the use of heliotherapy. The human activity that determines the land cover is the main element influencing the spatial differentiation of the possibilities of using this form of health treatment. It also affects topographic indicators shown as significant in the MaxEnt predictive model. In general, areas with high openness were shown as predisposed for health treatment using global solar radiation, which is not consistent with areas commonly used for heliotherapy. The conducted research has shown the need for an interdisciplinary approach to the issue of heliotherapy, which will contribute to the optimization of the use of this form of health treatment from the perspective of climate change and human pressure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of the study is to analyze the occurrence of hot days and heat waves in Poland, their intra-annual distribution, and their long-term variability, and to present the circulation factors favoring the appearance of extensive waves in the country. Hot days were days with Tmax not lower than the threshold value defined by the 95th percentile of summer Tmax in the period 1961–1990. Atmospheric circulation was described using sea level pressure, geopotential of 700 and 500 hPa level, and horizontal and vertical wind on these levels. A statistically significant increase in the number of hot days in the entire study period and a significant acceleration in growth after 1980 were shown. In the entire analyzed period, only 11 waves were found covering at least 25% of the country area and lasting no less than a week. Among them, only one occurred before 1990, and more than half were observed in the last decade. Four circulation patterns favoring the extensive heat waves were distinguished differing the location of main baric center location. Spatial and temporal distribution of vertical velocity anomalies allows distinguishing clear phases of strengthening, stabilization, and weakening of anticyclone accompanying the occurrence of a heat wave. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The primary purpose of the study was the determination of the spatial day-to-day variability of extreme air temperatures in Poland and the dependency of large temperature changes on atmospheric circulation in accordance with the Grosswetterlagen (GWL) classification. The goal was achieved based on data from 1966 to 2015, made available by the Institute of Meteorology and Water Management—National Research Institute. Day-to-day changes in maximum and minimum air temperatures were designated with a rate of ≥6 °C (large) and with a rate of ≥12 °C (very large) and their spatial distribution was presented. Finally, the analysis of the dependency of considerable temperature changes on atmospheric circulation in accordance with the Grosswetterlagen (GWL) classification was conducted. The obtained results showed that in Poland in the period 1966–2015 there was a statistically significant increase in the number of large changes in both Tmax and Tmin. The number of large changes in Tmax increases from north to south, and the number of large changes in Tmin from north to east and south of Poland indicate the range of the effect of marine and continental properties on the climate of Poland and the influence of local relief as well as the atmospheric circulation impact. Large changes in Tmax occur more frequently in spring and in Tmin in winter. Large changes in Tmax and Tmin are mainly recorded during cyclonic circulation, however, the anticyclonic circulation types favour especially large decreases in Tmin. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]