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This paper results from multiple requests to the authors for basic information on how cadastral systems operate in Australia particularly from a land surveying perspective. Australia is a federation of states and operates separate cadastral systems in each state and territory. The primary objective for each system is the same; to underpin effective land transfer and land registration within a sound land administration system to support an active land market. The paper explains the essential practices of the cadastral system including processes of land transfer and registration and the roles of professional supporting bodies for maintaining standards, quality and operability. Land information and especially ‘spatial’ information are increasingly required to contribute to decision-making in an evolving environmental and information conscious society. These demands raise the importance of the cadastre underpinning spatial data infrastructures.

Plan lodgement is an essential part of the land registration system in all Australian jurisdictions. This paper proposes that in the future, all cadastral data will be lodged in a digital format. It concentrates on issues associated with digital lodgement, and suggests several options for introducing digital lodgement.

This is a pre-print version of an article published in The Australian Surveyor 2001. This version is restricted to staff and students only.

Malaysian Cadastral System is based on the dimensions of each parcel and its location with respect to adjacent parcels. Realizing the needs of modern GIS and the efficiency of GPS as a positioning tool, there is a move by various countries to convert similar dimensional systems into “coordinate based cadastre”. This paper present the results of a collaborative study between the Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM) and the Department of Survey and Mapping, Malaysia (DSMM), on the implementation of Coordinated Cadastral System(CCS). The study focuses on two major issues: i) the application of GPS technique for control network densification to support the implementation of CCS; and ii) the adjustment of large cadastral network. A great length of analysis of results are presented.

The New Zealand cadastral system essentially requires that land parcels be demarcated. and that boundaries and dimensions are determined, in terms of relative rather than absolute position. For over 120 years, the necessary angle and distance measurements were undertaken with theodolite and chain, a methodology now mostly superseded by the EDM and/or total station. Currently, with robust kinematic GPS techniques and processing algorithms, and with the advent of real time capabilities, GPS increasingly provides an attractive alternative for performing cadastral work.

Text of a Public Lecture given in the Department of Geomatics, The University of Meboume, 29 August 1996

The Global Positioning System (GPS), a US Department of Defense satellite positioning system, has become a widely used measuring tool in practical surveying applications, especially in the provision of coordinate control for construction projects, small scale mapping and cadastral survey coordination. To use GPS effectively, the surveyor must be familiar with the relationships between (i) local and geocentric datums, (ii) geodetic, Australian Map Grid (AMG) and three dimensional Cartesian coordinates and (iii) heights referred to the ellipsoid, the geoid and the Australian Height Datum (AHD). These relationships, often complex, are usually expressed mathematically. The surveyor, therefore, must also be an applied mathematician - certainly by practice, if not by training. The aim of this paper is to provide an explanation of some of the mathematical theory associated with the reference surfaces and relationships mentioned above with particular attention to the geoid and GPS heighting.

This paper describes the content of the course at UNSW which is internationally recognised for its quality, depth and breadth. It prepares students for careers in the broad range of fields that are identified with Geomatics. [The School at UNSW has changed its name from Surveying to Geomatic Engineering and renamed its degree a Bachelor of Engineering.] Course material includes survey measurement using fully electronic tacheometers, in practicals, laboratories and survey camps; cadastral surveying, land development and management subjects all taught by practising professionals; computer programming and using commercial computer packages; geodesy, photogrammetry, spatial information systems (ie GIS), and remote sensing; as well as a sound basis in mathematics, physics, town planning and relevant aspects of civil engineering taught by other university schools. This paper attempts to explain some of the course content in narrative form, to provide prospective employers with details of the capabiliti...

Digital Cadastral Data Bases (DCDB) are now well established in Australia. They are managed in each state by a government organisation which has responsibility for standards, access, updating and upgrading processes, and pricing policies. The DCDBs have usually been created by digitising the best available cadastral map. The emphasis in Australia is now on maintenance of the DCDBs rather than creation. In parallel with this development, users have become more sophisticated and are requesting more from the DCDB and the provider in terms of improved topology, improved access, provision of meta data, improved data quality, improved accuracy and increased attributes. This paper reviews the needs of users of DCDBs in Australia and particularly the utility and local government users.

This paper argues that the introduction of western cadastral concepts into communities with different land tenure systems have involved “cultural costs.” The paper discusses these cultural costs and concludes that cadastral reformers need to re-design their product to fit the communities.

This paper has evolved from the ongoing research in the area of “Optimising, Maintaining and Updating the Spatial Accuracy of Digital Cadastral Data Bases”, published earlier in The Australian Surveyor [Hesse et al. 1990]. This paper gives additional background information for the process described in the first paper and describes new findings based on an object-oriented software implementation. The concepts of this relatively new software development approach are examined and their advantages for cadastral modelling and software creation are demonstrated. The resultant software prototype, programmed in Smalltalk/V286, has been implemented and tested at the Department of Surveying and Land Information, The University of Melbourne. Future trends are discussed with special emphasis on the rapidly changing software platforms, their impact on cadastral and LIS issues and the challenges ahead for the continuing education of Land and Geographic Information professionals.

For the last decade, the number of surveyors registered in New South Wales with the Board of Surveyors has remained close to 1,530. A suspicion has existed that this relatively large number did not actually reflect the “real” situation of how may surveyors are actively using the added qualification of a cadastral license to generate their income. An examination of all survey plans lodged in the eight month period from September 1991 until April 1992 has shed some light onto this question. The implications of this study for questions regarding the number of new registrations required per annum in New South Wales are assessed, as are quotas for Bachelor of Surveying students at the Universities of New South Wales and Newcastle.

Procedures available for electronic lodgement of plans are reviewed. Differences between engineering and cadastral surveying plans are highlighted. The results of a questionnaire supplied to over 800 registered surveyors in New South Wales are presented and discussed. The diversity of opinions held by members of the profession at this time is explored and a tentative proposal for a style of electronic lodgement is suggested.

The post-1985 rural cadastral survey system in Thailand Land Titling Project areas is examined in terms of the systems model of the first paper of this series. Preliminary (adjudication demarcation) and central (impact of geodetic survey, survey specifications and methodology) components of the system are analysed and survey and user outputs are discussed. System feed-back factors are identified and change from the pre-1985 system is summarised.

Cadastral surveys have traditionally been performed using the well established techniques of traversing and radiation. The equipment used to accomplish these surveys has evolved from optical theodolites and steel bands, to total station and data recorder technology. With the recent advances in satellite technology, space based positioning systems are now capable of replacing conventional survey methods for many survey applications. This paper presents the results of a rural cadastral survey performed using the Global Positioning System (GPS). The survey was also performed using conventional total station techniques. A comparison of the results obtained reveals positional differences of one to four centimetres between the two data collection techniques.

This paper describes a pattern matching method suitable for specific cadastral applications. In particular, this technique is useful for updating cadastral databases where unique point identifiers for each point are not stored. The method is based on covariance and is suitable for implementation in a RDBMS (relational database management system) based LIS/GIS. Particular reference is made to applications in Queensland.

This is a preprint of an article whose final and definitive form has been published in The Australian Surveyor © 1991 Taylor & Francis.

Alternative title systems to Torrens are briefly examined and pointer to cadastral reform derived therefrom. Technological, economic and social winds of change blowing across the Australian cadastral surveying environment are sensed and their impacts indentified.

The Thailand Land Titling Project is undoubtedly a successful project combining technical, institutional, legal and educational components. It is a joint project by the Royal Thai Government, the World Bank and the Australian International Development Assistance Bureau. It is primarily concerned with the issuing of land titles to all freehold parcels in the Kingdom of Thailand, in addition to undertaking land administration improvement, establishing a national valuation system, carrying out urban cadastral mapping for all urban areas in the country and developing a national land information strategy. The paper briefly overviews the project, outlines some of the lessons from the project and reviews the significant socio-economic benefits of the project. The paper, however, concentrates on attempting to evaluate the reasons for the success of the project. In particular, it argues that the institutional, economic, social, legal and political environment at the time of project preparation and impleme...

This paper reviews the current status of Digital Cadastral Data Bases (DCDBs) as a spatial reference for Land Information Systems in Australia and New Zealand. It has been compiled from a questionnaire completed during a study tour by Walter Hesse on the various State cadastral systems in May 1989 and subsequent correspondence with the relevant sources. The trip was undertaken as part of a research project at the Department of Surveying and Land Information at The University of Melbourne and sought to compare and review the various DCDB systems. After the review of the various systems, a future research path and possible changes in future DCDB systems are discussed.

The pre-1986 rural cadastral survey system of Thailand is outlined. An analytical model is developed and applied to that system in order to identify the external factors that operated on it to induce major change. The nature of the change and feedback factors in the system will be discussed in a second paper.

The traditional role of the surveyor, whilst relying heavily on measurement as the basic function, was to provide geographical informaton for the purposes of orderly land administration and the levying of taxes. Therefore, recent emphasis of the surveyor's role as a manager of land-related information is not a change of direction but rather an evolution of the traditional role. The method of disposal of the Crown estate in Australia blurred the traditional role by creating a requirement for reinstatement of boundaries. Thus, in Australia, the traditional role may have been less obvious and the use of new terms such as “information manager” may seem less relevant. Even definitions of the term “surveying” have tended to emphasise the measurement role rather than the cadastre administration role, but this trend has been reversed and recent definitions are moving to recognise the traditional role. Confusion over its role in society has led to the fragmentation of surveying into factional groups, each...

This paper examines the shortcomings of current approaches for optimising, maintaining and updating spatial reference systems, such as digital cadastral data bases (DCDB), as a foundation or base map for a Land or Geographic Information System (LIS/GIS). A different approach, implemented and tested at the Department of Surveying and Land Information, The Univeristy of Melbourne, is explained and compared with conventional methods. This alternative approach is evaluated under special considerations of cost, for the creator and custodian of the information (typically government agencies), and the benefits for both custodian and end user of this information (typically the utility industry or Local Government). Future trends are discussed with special emphasis on rapidly changing hardware and software platforms and their impact on cadastral and LIS issues.

This paper describes both a viable and unique approach to the spatial co-ordination of the cadastre, aimed particularly at the NSW situation. The approach, which is essentially based upon the “whol...

The increased use of digital data recorders by the surveying profession is connaturally linked to the creation of digital cadastral data bases (DCDB). The management of digital measurements, whethe...

This paper discusses the role of cadastres in developing countries, reviews why cadastral systems have become much more important in the eyes of policy makers over the last ten years, particularly in the developing world, and finally highlights some important lessons arising from establishing cadastral systems in developing countries over the past decade.

The benefits of an efficient cadastral survey and land registration system to developing countries are described. The legal, and particularly the technical procedures in creating a cadastre are discussed. The use of ground and photogrammetric survey techniques are highlighted. The reasons for restricting the introduction of efficient cadastral survey systems are considered. Thailand is used as an example of a country which has shown much flexibility in improving its cadastral system to better meet the needs of its developing economy. In this regard, the institutional and legal arrangements in the Thai cadastral system are described, as is the development of the cadastral survey system. As an indication of continuing flexibility, the future direction of the Thai cadastral system is discussed.

The paper describes the background to the consideration of photogrammetry for cadastral surveys in the Republic of Taiwan. Past experiences and difficulties encountered in the application of photogrammetry are outlined and compared with the situation in some European countries. A set of specifications for cadastral surveys for a range of land values has been established. A pilot study in the use of an analytical plotter shows that the requirements can be met in a typical rural context.

This paper compares the cadastral systems of South Australia, New Brunswick (Canada) and New Zealand. This paper addresses the ‘Administrative aspects’ of the three cadastral systems and a subsequent paper deals with the ‘Operational aspects’. An ‘improved cadastral model’ is developed, setting objectives for improving and developing comparable cadastral systems.

Initiatives for the reform of the South Australian cadastral surveying system are outlined and the 1985 Feasibility Study into a Co-ordinated Cadastre is discussed in detail. This is the second of two articles examining reform in the South Australian cadastral survey system.

The paper draws a surveying-oriented distinction between data and information, as applicable to data bases. The need for surveyors to participate in data base design and applications software development is stressed. Textual, aspatial and spatial elements are given descriptions, for use in this paper, to aid in understanding the three currently operational data base architectures and the emerging object-oriented software architecture. The role of a survey data base is highlighted along with the implications of other related data bases within Land Information Systems. The dynamic and static nature of different data bases, and the requirement for a static data base of survey-related elements to support historic research into matters such as the cadastral land parcel framework at a given period, is noted. Major impacts are summarised.

This paper traces the Victorian Parish system from the original instructions from the Sydney Survey Office in 1837 to the system in its present form. The matter is placed in an historical perspective and the importance of the early failures to colonise Victoria is enunciated. It is contended that, if Victoria had been permanently founded in 1803 or 1826, there would have been an entirely different system adopted. The system began with instructions from Perry in Sydney to Russell and later Hoddle in Melbourne. Perry's instructions endeavoured to correct the shortcomings of the system operating in NSW. Victoria presented the unique opportunity to implement the improving concepts that were in vogue at the time. These instructions are detailed, form the complex beginning of the Victorian cadastre and are, therefore, of paramount importance. Part B of the paper will detail how these instructions were carried out on the ground and the formation of the infrastructure to support the operation.

Analytical photogrammetry has become a very accurate method for co-ordinating ground stations. Improvements in accuracy can be attributed to improved methods of correcting for systematic errors and to the use of sophisticated computer adjustment techniques. In particular, the use of the reseau camera and test field calibrations to correct for film and lens distortion and the use of the bundle adjustment method have enabled co-ordinate standard deviations of less than 3 cm to be achieved. Applications of analytical photogrammetry are now possible in cadastral and geodetic areas, traditionally the domain of field survey methods. The increased accuracy will benefit mapping programmes and permit a wider application of analytical photogrammetry to engineering projects.

The paper outlines the mapping and cadastral information problems and issues in urban areas throughout Thailand. The objectives, characteristics and development stages of a major urban mapping programme are reviewed. Also addressed are some of the key issues that influenced the project design as well as significant issues that are relevant to the improvement of the urban cadastre and Land Information Systems (LIS) in Thailand and other developing countries.

Least squares reinstatement means getting the best fit between a number of original survey marks. The idea in general — The concepts to be outlined below are not new. It would be of interest to kno...

The role of surveying is traced in the development of the land registration systems of Tasmania on the one hand and that of England and Wales on the other. The technical problems of cadastral surveying in these systems are examined and analysed in terms of the cadastral base, statutory requirements and professional practice.

This paper draws attention to the continuing between “permanent” survey co-ordinates and the results more recent surveys of greater accuracy based on ever-improving, modern technology. It suggests the adoption and retention of “local” co-ordinates specifically for limited areas of cadastral and engineering surveys, the connection of these blocks via permanent survey marks to the Australian Geodetic Survey, the continual improvement that Survey and the periodic modernisation of its coordinates, starting with adoption of the Geodetic Model Australia, 1980 (GMA80). An Annex gives brief details of projected developments in satellite geodesy.

This study is concerned with the investigation of tablet digitisers as measuring tools in photogrammetric control extension for cadastral and agricultural purposes. A well surveyed area in eastern ...

An integrated survey system will be introduced into New South Wales in the near future. Its introduction will not immediately solve all the problems associated with our system of isolated surveys. It will, however, be an important step in the modernisation of our cadastral system. An historical examination has been made of a similar system to our own — the State of Hawaii, U.S.A. — as an aid in understanding this present development.

A historical review is made of the measurement and marking of cadastral surveys in New South Wales. The development of linear and angular measurement techniques has been considered in the following...

This is the second of two articles examining the Australian Capital Territory (ACT) cadastral and land information system (LIS). The article examines trends in the ACT land administration system and reviews recent initiatives in the LIS area in the ACT. A model for the ACT LIS is proposed together with the structure of a future ACT Spatial Data Base within the Australian Survey Office as part of the broader LIS. Due to the advanced development of the ACT cadastral system, it could be considered “a cadastral laboratory” for the rest of Australia.

This paper discusses the history of the Western Australian School of Mines, the philosophy behind the various models that have been proposed for mine surveying curricula, some distinctions between the cadastral and the mine surveyor and the registration of "authorised mine surveyors" in the State of Western Australia.

A review is made of all major attempts and recommendations to introduce coordination of cadastral surveys into New South Wales. The review covers the period from the first directives by the Government for a general survey in the 1820s, to the proposals to introduce coordination based on the Integrated Survey Grid in the 1970s. An attempt is made to draw some conclusions from the historical review which will assist in the

As an aid to understanding the application of the concept of multi-purpose cadastres in Australia, a true fully-operational multi-purpose cadastre has been described—the cadastre chosen is that of the Canton de Vaud in Switzerland. In particular the relationship between title registration, cadastral surveying and large scale mapping is discussed. Those aspects of the cadastral system which have relevance to the Australian situation are highlighled and assessed.

Over the past four years the Victorian Government has implemented a number of projects focusing upon the creation of an integrated Property Based Land Information System. This has resulted in the capture of both textual and graphical cadastral information. To facilitate the distribution of this information the LANDATA Property Group format has been developed to support interchange of textual information and AS2482 is being used to support the interchange of graphical information. This article deals primarily with the requirements for the interchange of graphical cadastral information in Victoria and is aimed at identifying some of the issues surrounding the exchange of this type of information.

In 1983 I wrote an article about Least Squares Reinstatement. One of the assumptions upon which Least Squares Reinstatement is based is that there is a constant scale factor between the original su...

The background of the South Austratian cadastral system is traced emphasising the original partitioning into Counties, Hundreds and Sections. The development of the Torrens system of land registration is briefly reviewed together with the growth of cadastral surveying to support that system. The problems and deficiencies of the existing surveying methodology are emphasised. This is the first of two articles examining reform in the South Australian cadastral survey system.

The contemporary role of surveying in the process of vertical, horizontal and group (cluster) land title registration is discussed and conclusions are drawn as to the likely direction cadastral surveying will take in Australia.