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Understanding how native hyperparasitoids are attuned to novel hosts has practical implications for the classical biological control of invasive pest insects. This research focuses on both host size and female parasitoid body size to examine their joint effects on host evaluation and offspring performance. The parasitoid is Cheiloneurus nankingensis, which is native to Asia and an obligate gregarious hyperparasitoid attacking Aenasius arizonensis, which parasitizes the mealybug Phenacoccus solenopsis invasive to Asia. There was a quadratic 'dome-shaped' relationship between mealybug body size and both antenna-tapping and ovipositor-drilling frequencies and durations. Parasitoid body size did not affect these behaviors, except having a slight negative effect on ovipositor-drilling duration. Offspring egg-to-adult development time was similar for both large and small females when attacking large mealybugs, but it was longer for large females compared to small ones when attacking small mealybugs. Brood size at eclosion increased with both mealybug size and female size. Brood sex ratio (percent males) decreased with mealybug size while remaining unaffected by female size. The body size of adult offspring and their longevity increased with mealybug size while remaining unaffected by female size. These findings imply that mealybug size is much more relevant than female size to host examination behaviors and both aspects of size exert separate effects on brood allocation but an interaction to affect offspring developmental time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The southern tip of North America coalesces into one of the world's largest freshwater wetlands, the Everglades, Florida, USA. Though this region is much like an island, home to high biodiversity and endemism, it is also the site of a century of development and associated landscape-scale species invasions. Melaleuca quinquenervia (hereafter melaleuca), a tree native to tropical Australia, was planted extensively throughout south Florida as street trees, levee stabilizers, and later to reduce standing water in marshy areas. Through extensive cooperation with the United States Department of Agriculture's Australian Biological Control Laboratory, several biological control agents were released, three of which later successfully established. Herein we examine evidence that plant community shifts determined from vegetation surveys and remotely sensed images reflect changes from melaleuca-dominated wetlands (before management) to native communities (after management). Melaleuca-dominated community types decreased from 1990 to 2020 by more than 99%. Vegetation surveys also reflect an increase in cypress wetlands, pinelands, and open water wetlands, all of which were dominated by melaleuca in previous decades. We also found the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) increased in melaleuca-invaded wetlands during peak infestations but decreased again after communities recovered to sawgrass-dominated wetlands. These responses are concomitant with the development of integrative management techniques for melaleuca that include mechanical, chemical, and biological control. Our results confirm previous findings that biological control likely augments conventional management methods by limiting recovery of invasive species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The contributions in this Special Issue originate from a Symposium "Classical biological control of weeds and arthropods: Evaluation of social, economic and ecological benefits" presented at the 26th International Congress of Entomology, held in Helsinki, Finland in 2022. Following an opening article analyzing agent and target traits associated with greater success odds in weed biological control, a perspective article summarizing how biological control programs are currently assessed and how they may be evaluated going forward frames the articles in the Special Issue. Articles assess different dimensions of success for selected weed and arthropod biocontrol programs either on the individual project level or through summaries of recent projects for geographic regions. Success dimensions include economic, ecological and socio-economic benefits. Included are also several articles that summarize or propose the use of innovative tools to improve biological control as a discipline going forward. Overall, this Special Issue portrays a status quo of biological control characterized by thoughtful analyses of project outcomes and recommendations to improve outcome assessments and increase the odds of success. As such, an optimistic prognosis for biological control is provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Invasive insect pests are a significant and accelerating threat to agricultural productivity, they degrade wilderness areas, and reduce quality of life in urban zones. Introduction biological control, the introduction, release, and establishment of host-specific efficacious natural enemies, is an effective management tool for permanently suppressing invasive pest populations over vast areas, often to levels that may no longer cause economic or environmental damage. However, introduction biological control programs are reactive: they are only initiated after an invasive pest has established, spread, and is causing damage that requires mitigation. Host specificity and host range testing of natural enemies for use in an introduction biological control program against an invasive pest can take years to complete. During this time, the target pest population continues to increase, invades new areas, and inflicts damage. Proactive biological control research programs identify prior to their establishment pest species that have high invasion potential and are likely to cause economic or environmental damage once established. Natural enemies are selected, screened, and if sufficiently host-specific, approved for release in advance of the anticipated establishment of the target pest. Following detection of the target pest and determination that incipient populations cannot be eradicated, natural enemies already approved for release are liberated into infested areas. This proactive approach to introduction biological control could significantly reduce project development time post-invasion, thereby lessening opportunities for pest populations to build, spread, and cause damage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The release of Tamarixia triozae (Burks) (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae), a parasitoid of the potato psyllid, Bactericera cockerelli (Šulc) (Hemiptera: Triozidae), resulted in the successful establishment of the parasitoid in New Zealand. The parasitoid was released at more than 30 sites by the final year of the three-year study throughout New Zealand. Its continued presence over the three-year study was confirmed in two regions (Hawke's Bay and Canterbury). At one site in Canterbury, the parasitoid was released only in the first summer of this study (Nov. 2017–Feb. 2018). It was recovered from potato psyllid infested African boxthorn (Lycium ferocissimum Miers) foliage in the second and third summers at this site, demonstrating the parasitoid's ability to survive over successive winters. We found T. triozae parasitized nymphs at 24 sites of the 86 potato psyllid host plant sites surveyed within a 25 km radius of known release sites in Hawke's Bay. The parasitoid was found up to 24 km from the nearest known release site in Hawke's Bay. In Canterbury, the parasitoid was found up to 0.6 km from a known release site. Parasitism rates of 13.7–15.6% were estimated based on two post-release survey methods employed in this study. The parasitoid also feeds on psyllid nymphs so its establishment may lead to helping to reduce or delay potato psyllid populations from reaching damaging levels. Long-term monitoring is needed to determine the consequences of importing T. triozae on populations of potato psyllid. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Australia there are five weedy Sporobolus grass (WSG) species that heavily impact agricultural industries and native biodiversity. WSG have been the subject of several efforts to find host-specific pathogens with potential for classical and inundative biocontrol. Most of these studies are only discussed in unpublished reports or theses, so in this paper we synthesise the available peer-reviewed and 'grey' literature that discuss classical, augmentative and inundative biocontrol of WSG in Australia using fungal pathogens. We consider the hundreds of fungal pathogens previously isolated from Sporobolus hosts on an international and national scale. Of the pathogens investigated for WSG biocontrol previously, the only promising classical biocontrol agent was a smut fungus (Ustilago sporoboli-indici) from South Africa that is now present in Queensland and New South Wales, Australia. Its method of introduction to Australia is unknown. We hence discuss the history and potential for augmentative biocontrol of WSG using U. sporoboli-indici. Next, we summarise inundative biocontrol efforts. Several ascomycetes isolated from Australian WSG populations have been tested in this regard, including species of Nigrospora, Fusarium, Curvularia, Microdochium, Pestalotiopsis, and Neopestalotiopsis. However, a lack of host-specificity or efficacy subsequently precluded their further development, and potential improvements on those inundative biocontrol studies are discussed. Finally, we discuss a collection of endemic fungal taxa isolated from diseased Sporobolus in Australia, which are currently undergoing virulence, pathogenicity, and host-specificity screening as potential inundative biocontrol agents for WSG. Our intention is that the lessons learned from previous studies and summarised herein, will support ongoing development of WSG biocontrol agents in Australia, and more broadly, weed biocontrol using plant pathogens anywhere in the world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Nagoya Protocol for access and benefit sharing (ABS) attaches significance to India since the country exchanges classical biological control agents to manage invasive alien species. Classical biological control differs from commercial biological control in that it involves the use of co-evolved, host specific natural enemies from the host's native region to control the host wherever invasive. The national Biological Diversity Act is responsible for implementing ABS in India. It stipulates the means for use of biological resources for various purposes including research and commerce. However, commercial use of bioresources as biological control agents is not included. ABS regulates the exchange of research results using biological resources and related intellectual property rights. India is yet to implement the Nagoya Protocol effectively due to certain gaps in the Biological Diversity Act concerning some of the key provisions in the protocol that need to be addressed. However, some examples of the application of ABS measures for export of biological resources are discussed here. For export of biological control agents from India, collaborative research with the recipient country is necessary and is governed by the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers' Welfare. Multiplication of biological control agents for commercial use and release is governed by ABS regulations. For importation of biological control agents into India, the exporting country regulations apply, and the Plant Protection Advisor grants permission. To implement the Nagoya Protocol effectively in India, we recommend that: (1) user country policies include clauses that discourage misuse of biological resources, (2) the consent of local communities be sought before accessing biological resources instead of just 'consulting' them, (3) ABS provisions are clearly stated, including what is covered and what is not covered under the Biological Diversity Act, (4) ABS provisions be made more flexible to facilitate compliance, and (5) the roles and responsibilities of each agency involved in ABS implementation be clearly defined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The USA has been actively involved in classical biological control projects against invasive insect pests and weeds since 1888. Classical (importation) biological control relies upon natural enemies associated through coevolution with their target species at their geographic origin to also provide long-term, self-sustaining management where the pest/weed has become invasive. Biological control agents are a form of genetic resources and fall under the purview of the 1993 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and its Nagoya Protocol (NP), which entered into force in 2014 to address equitable sharing of benefits arising from utilization of genetic resources. Safe and effective classical biological control agents have historically been shared among countries experiencing problems with invasive species. However, a feature of the Nagoya Protocol is that countries are expected to develop processes governing access to their genetic resources to ensure that the benefits are shared equitably—a concept referred to as "access and benefit sharing" (ABS). Although the USA is not party to the CBD nor the NP, US biological control programs are affected by these international agreements. Surveying, collecting, exporting and importing of natural enemies may be covered by new ABS regulatory processes. Challenges of ABS have arisen as various countries enact new regulations (or not) governing access to genetic resources, and the processes for gaining access and sharing the benefits from these resources have become increasingly complex. In the absence of an overarching national US policy, individual government agencies and institutions follow their own internal procedures. Biological control practitioners in the USA have been encouraged in recent years to observe best practices developed by the biological community for insect and weed biological control. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

National idiosyncrasies in the adoption of the Nagoya Protocol (NP) and implementation of access and benefit sharing (ABS) have created obstacles for many research-based activities that require access to genetic resources. This is particularly true for disciplines such as classical and augmentative biological control. As a provider of biological control genetic resources worldwide, South America plays an important role in this context. The status of adoption of the NP in South America is reviewed, analysing the number of internationally recognised certificates of compliance, and examining the number of certificates issued in South America to access biological control genetic resources. We also summarise the common problems associated with access and export of biological control genetic resources through the experience of a non-governmental organisation in Argentina, the Fundación para el Estudio de Especies Invasivas (https://en.fuedei.org/). Finally, we provide some communication and awareness-raising activities to persuade policy makers on the importance of facilitating the exchange of biocontrol genetic resources and ABS regulations in South America. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS) was implemented to further develop the third objective of the Convention on Biological Diversity, the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources. Interpretation of this agreement is wide-ranging and there is concern that if ABS measures are poorly implemented biological control and the resultant public good will be greatly impeded. The ethos of multilateral use and exchange of genetic resources used in classical biological control will be particularly affected. In the spirit of the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources, we propose a simple practical solution in the form of an international agreement on the use and exchange of classical biological control genetic resources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Exotic generalist arthropod biological control agents (GABCAs) have been historically marginalized in classical and augmentative biological control due to their broad diet breadth, but an increasing demand for a more sustainable pest control is encouraging their reconsideration. This special issue compiles a collection of papers revealing that risks of several exotic GABCAs were overestimated, not all generalists are riskier than specialists and their environmental risk assessment (ERA) solely based on exposure analysis is inadequate. Three papers demonstrated that generalists were not involved in predicted non-target interactions: generalist idiobiont parasitoids probably do not exhibit interference competition with each other, an oligophagous exotic egg-larval koinobiont parasitoid does not compete with a native larval koinobiont, and an invasive generalist predator does not escape from its enemies. Two innovative methods for selecting non-target species are proposed, one based on existing food web data to predict indirect non-target effects, and the other on functional traits to predict competition with native natural enemies. Also a comprehensive GABCA-ERA method is proposed that integrates adverse effect analysis to the 'conventional' exposure analysis. The method was scrutinized by two studies: one suggesting that it could have resulted in faster and less costly decisions on two exotic generalists in New Zealand, and the other suggesting that eight exotic GABCAs released in Argentina might potentially reduce native natural enemies. We hope this special issue will stimulate the continued advance in the biosafety research of GABCAs so their safe use does not stagnate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Eradication of new pests can avoid ongoing management costs. Although predominantly employed for suppression, classical biological control (CBC) may support eradication attempts, but also may cause non-target impacts in the long term. While CBC is potentially less costly than other approaches, complete eradication is difficult, especially when pests can sustain their populations at low levels. The sterile insect technique (SIT) involves the mass-rearing and release of sterilised insects to disrupt fecundity. This has proven to be synergistic with the release of biological control agents such as egg parasitoids. Here we describe a newly conceptualised tool, the 'Kamikaze Wasp Technique' (KWT), which uses a novel combination of CBC and SIT in an eradication to avoid impacts on non-target organisms. This technique proposes the release of sterile parasitoids, as irradiating mated female parasitoids can induce sterility without inhibiting their ability to kill the host. Future work should characterise the irradiation biology of parasitoids. Halyomorpha halys Stål (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) and its natural enemy, Trissolcus japonicus Ashmead (Hymenoptera: Scelionidae), provide a model system for assessing the potential of the KWT. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Brown marmorated stinkbug (BMSB), Halyomorpha halys Stål (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae), is native to Asia and an invasive urban and agricultural pest in the US. In California (CA), BMSB has been recorded attacking specialty crops such as almonds and peaches. The egg parasitoid Trissolcus japonicus (Ashmead) (Hymenoptera: Scelionidae), a key BMSB natural enemy native to Asia, is a candidate for classical biological control efforts targeting BMSB in CA and other parts of the US Trissolcus japonicus cannot be introduced deliberately into CA for BMSB control without US federal regulatory agency approval which is contingent on better understanding of its host range and specificity. Consequently, the host specificity and physiological host range of T. japonicus was evaluated under laboratory quarantine conditions by exposing eggs of BMSB and non-target pentatomid hosts (native and other exotic species) found in CA to T. japonicus. No-choice and binary-choice experiments provided female T. japonicus with equal unrestricted access to eggs of BMSB and non-target pentatomids. In addition to BMSB, eggs from six of ten resident pentatomid species found in CA were parasitized by T. japonicus. However, T. japonicus attack and emergence rates were consistently higher on BMSB when compared to non-target species. These results suggest that T. japonicus is oligophagous, but BMSB is a superior reproductive host compared to non-target pentatomid species that were evaluated. The implications of these findings for classical biological control efforts targeting BMSB in CA are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Classical biological control using insects has led to the partial or complete control of at least 226 invasive insect and 57 invasive weed species worldwide since 1888. However, at least ten introductions of biological control agents have led to unintended negative consequences and these cases have led to a focus on risk that came to dominate the science and practice of classical biological control by the 1990s. Based upon historical developments in the field we consider that the era of focus on benefits began in 1888 and that it was supplanted by an era in which the focus was on risks during the 1990s. This paradigm shift greatly improved the safety of biological control releases but also led to a decline in the number of introductions, probably resulting in opportunity costs. We note here the development of a third paradigm: one in which the benefits and risks of biological control are clearly and explicitly balanced so that decisions can be made that maximize benefits while minimizing risks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigated trends in biological control to both capture its evolution and explore future opportunities. We examined recent changes in public interest, international networking and peer-reviewed research. A Google Trends analysis revealed that the popularity of biological control is decreasing in terms of search hits on the internet. This trend is potentially worrying for the biological control community, given that public interest tends to drive political decisions regarding regulatory processes and governmental funding of research. To examine patterns of international collaboration, we established the list of authors who published their work in the three main biological control journals from the early 1990s to 2016. International co-authorship has intensified and the biological control sector is increasingly characterized by multilateral collaboration. We surveyed papers published in BioControl and Biological Control over the last 25 years to identify research trends with respect to target pests, commodities, biological control agents and biological control approaches. Finally, we report that articles on biological control are published in the broad-based scientific journals Science and Nature on a regular basis. This reflects contributions that biological control research makes to scientific discussions in general. Our analyses revealed a thriving scientific discipline with several major research trends in arthropod, plant pathogen and weed biological control. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Integrating classical biological control with other management techniques such as herbicide, fire, mechanical control, grazing, or plant competition, can be the most effective way to manage invasive weeds in natural areas and rangelands. Biological control agents can be protected from potential negative impacts of these weed control methods through untreated refugia or by applying the treatment at a time when the agent is not vulnerable. A literature review of experiments that integrated biological control with other management strategies from 1987 to 2017 yielded 39 terrestrial and 16 aquatic studies. The tactics most frequently integrated with biological control were herbicide applications and plant competition. Despite numerous examples of successful programs and calls for more widespread integration of biological control with other weed management strategies, there was no increase in the number of studies reported annually over time. Additional studies investigating the ecological and economic benefits of integrated weed management are needed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biological control is considered by many applied ecologists and pest management specialists to be among the safest, most environmentally benign, and most cost-effective methods of pest control available. Yet the practical implementation of projects, especially for classical biocontrol, is replete with challenges large and small; some long standing, and others relatively new. Here we review some of the most pressing current challenges, and provide some background about their foundation and derivation. A common thread that runs throughout this summary is that public education and public support for biological control technology is critical for maintaining the economic, regulatory, and logistical feasibility of this most effective tool for pest management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Leptoglossus occidentalis Heidemann (Heteroptera, Coreidae) is a harmful insect to cones and seeds of several conifers in North America, and was accidentally introduced into Europe where it rapidly spread to many countries. In Central Italy, the pest damaged cones and seeds of Pinus pinea L., leading to a severe reduction of pine nut production. Gryon pennsylvanicum (Ashmead) (Hymenoptera, Platygastridae) is the most common egg-parasitoid of L. occidentalis in British Columbia. This natural enemy has been successfully reared under laboratory conditions. However, the possibility to arrange a sufficient large number of specimens is crucial for the success in biological control. In the present work, stored L. occidentalis eggs at fridge and freezing temperatures of +4, −20 °C, and ultra-low temperatures of −80 and −140 °C for different times up to one year, were tested for parasitization success. Results showed that G. pensylvanicum can exploit successfully host eggs stored for long time when stored at ultra-low temperatures and that storage did not affect fitness of the first and second generation. For shorter periods of time, the use of +4 °C for store eggs did not vary significantly from eggs stored at ultra-low temperatures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rhaponticum repens (L.) Hidalgo is a clonal Asteraceae plant native to Asia and highly invasive in North America. We conducted open-field experiments in Iran to assess the impact of the biological control candidate, Aceria acroptiloni Shevchenko & Kovalev (Acari, Eriophyidae), on the target weed. Using three different experimental approaches, we found that mite attack reduced the biomass of R. repens shoots by 40-75 %. Except for the initial year of artificial infestation by A. acroptiloni of R. repens shoots, the number of seed heads was reduced by 60-80 % and the number of seeds by 95-98 %. Morphological investigations of the mite complex attacking R. repens at the experimental field site revealed that A. acroptiloni was by far the dominant mite species. We conclude that the mite A. acroptiloni is a promising biological control candidate inflicting significant impact on the above-ground biomass and reproductive output of the invasive plant R. repens. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Numerous arthropod species are genetically differentiated across their distribution area. Diversifying the geographical origins of a biocontrol agent species can be used to favour their perennial establishment by the sampling of pre-adapted genotypes and/or the production of new genotypes through hybridization. Hybridization can be nevertheless challenged by reproductive isolations induced by some common microbial endosymbionts. In this study, we aimed at characterizing (i) the genetic diversity of six populations of Psyttalia lounsburyi (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), a candidate biocontrol agent of the olive fruit fly Bactrocera oleae (Diptera: Tephritidae) and (ii) the diversity of their Wolbachia endosymbionts. Both mitochondrial and microsatellite markers evidence clustering between the South African population and several Kenyan/Namibian populations. The survey of the Wolbachia also distinguished two main variants with a spatial heterogeneity in the infection status. All these results are discussed in the context of the use of these P. lounsburyi populations for hybridization and further field releases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of exotic (=alien) arthropods in classical and augmentative biological control programs has yielded huge economic and ecological benefits. Exotic species of arthropods have contributed to the suppression of key pests in agriculture and forestry or have aided in restoring natural systems affected by adventive species. However, adverse non-target effects of exotic biological control agents have been observed in a number of projects. Non-target effects range from very small effects, e.g. 2% parasitization on a non-target insect on a local level, to massive effects on a large scale. Until now, no consensus on how to judge the magnitude of non-target effects and whether these effects can be tolerated or are unacceptable has emerged. In this paper, we briefly review both the benefits of biological control as well as the associated risks including to human and animal health, plant health and particularly the environment. We also make an attempt at identifying the major challenges for assessing risks and for balancing benefits and risks. There is general agreement that sound risk assessment procedures should precede the release of exotic invertebrate biological control agents and a recent shift-especially for arthropod biological control-from introductions done without meaningful risk assessment studies to projects conducting thorough host range testing can be observed. However, overly stringent regulations that would preclude promising agents from being developed must be avoided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Psyttalia lounsburyi (Silvestri) and P. humilis (Silvestri) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) were evaluated in California for their potential to control the invasive olive fruit fly, Bactrocera oleae (Rossi) (Diptera: Tephritidae). Psyttalia lounsburyi is a specialist on B. oleae while P. humilis also attacks other tephritid species. Field cage trials, conducted from 2006 to 2009, were used to compare P. lounsburyi and two populations of P. humilis (Kenya and Namibia) in California's interior valley and coastal regions. Both parasitoid species reproduced on B. oleae in all trials. Under similar abiotic conditions, offspring production per female was higher in P. humilis than in P. lounsburyi, suggesting that host specificity by P. lounsburyi does not confer a higher efficiency on B. oleae in cultivated olives. Two abiotic factors were shown to impact parasitoid efficiency. First, adult parasitoid survival was poor during periods of high summer temperatures, common to the olive production areas in California's interior valleys. Second, parasitism levels were lower on B. oleae larvae feeding in larger Ascolano cv. fruit than in smaller Manzanillo cv. fruit. Results are discussed relative to biological control of B. oleae in commercial olives and the usefulness of natural enemies specialized to attack fruit flies in wild olives compared with the larger cultivated olive fruit. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Larval parasitoids of Yponomeuta malinellus Zell. (Lepidoptera: Yponomeutidae), the apple ermine moth (AEM), were sought in northeast Asia with the goal of identifying potential biological controls of the moth, which appeared to threaten the apple industry in Washington State, USA during the 1980s. Ten primary and four secondary parasitoids were found. Dolichogenidea delecta (Haliday) (Braconidae), Ageniaspis fuscicollis (Dalman) (Encyrtidae), Herpestomus brunnicornis Grav. (Icheumonidae), Bessa paralella (Meigen), and Zenillia dolosa (Meigen) (Tachinidae) were the most important parasitoids. The composition of parasitoid species was more diverse in Korea and Japan than in China; two species were found in China, compared to nine in Korea and seven in Japan. A. fuscicollis caused a greater mortality in all investigated countries; 22.7, 11.0, and 9.3% in China, Korea, and Japan, respectively. There was a high similarity in the composition of the parasitoid complex between Korean and Honshu populations but the rates of parasitization were different. The polyphagous B paralella caused significantly higher parasitism in Honshu (18.2%) than in Korea (0.5%). In contrast, H. brunnicornis caused significantly higher parasitism in Korea (8.7%) than in Japan (2.4%). A. fuscicollis and H. brunnicornis, judged to be the most appropriate parasitoids for biological control of AEM moth in the USA, were collected and sent to the USA for release. A. fuscicollis established and is contributing to the control of AEM. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tests were conducted on the hostspecificity of a Brazilian isolate of thefungus Neozygites floridana, a potentialbiological control agent for the cassava greenmite, Mononychellus tanajoa, in Africa.Five insect and two mite species, mostly fromthe cassava agroecosystem, were evaluated forsusceptibility to N. floridana, namely Euseius concordis, E. citrifolius, Phenacoccus herreni, Stethorus sp., Aleurothrixus aepim, Apoanagyrusdiversicornis, and Bombyx mori.Individuals of each species were exposed tocapilliconidia (the infective stage of thefungus). None of the tested individuals wasfound with hyphal bodies (the vegetative stageof the fungus), whereas 73 to 94% of thecassava green mites in the controls becameinfected. Non-germinated capilliconidia were,however, found attached to several individualsin most species. N. floridana appears tobe safe for exportation. Further evaluation ofits performance against M. tanajoa inAfrica is therefore desirable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper gives suggestions forunifying the terminology in biological controlacross different research disciplines, such asbiological control of arthropods, weeds andplant pathogens. It is suggested that use ofthe term `biological control' is restricted tothe use of living organisms. Four strategiesof biological control are outlined anddefined: (1) Classical biological control, (2) Inoculation biological control, (3) Inundationbiological control, and (4) Conservationbiological control. It is proposed to usethese four terms as defined, and avoid usageof the term `augmentation'. Terms for specificprocesses and modes of action (for example,`parasitoid' and `competitor') can be definedby usage within the different biologicalcontrol disciplines. Microbial control usuallyindicates biological control of invertebratesusing microbes and, as such, is a subdivisionof biological control. Use of additionalauxiliary terms such as biopesticide isdiscussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Eggs of Diaprepes abbreviatus (L.) were routinely monitored in citrus groves at ten locations in Florida during 1997 and 1998 to study egg parasitism. One citrus location was studied in Puerto Rico. No native parasitoids were recovered from 1,337 D. abbreviatus egg masses studied in Florida citrus. In contrast, an average of 35.5% (range 12.5 to 68.8%) parasitism of egg masses was reported in Puerto Rico. The parasitoids Aprostocetus gala, Horismenus spp, and Quadrastichus haitiensis were recovered from the eggs of D. abbreviatusfstudied in Puerto Rico. The Horismenus parasitoids were suspected hyperparasitoids. Releases of the parasitoid Ceratogramma etiennei from Guadeloupe were initiated during 1998 at each of the Florida research sites. By the end of 1998, C. etiennei had been recovered from D. abbreviatus eggs at two of nine locations in Florida citrus. The parasitoid was recovered from 1 of 34 egg masses at one of these locations during the month of September and from 3 of 34 egg masses at the other location during the month of November. Whether or not C. etiennei establishes itself at one or more locations in Florida remains to be seen. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Surveys for mealybugs, associated natural enemies and ants were conducted in abandoned pineapple fields on the Hawaiian islands of Oahu and Maui from July 1992 to November 1993. Whole plant samples were taken, and mealybugs and ants found were identified. Mealybug-infested plant parts were isolated and held until natural enemies emerged from parasitized host material. At sample sites where only Dysmicoccus brevipes was present, its densities ranged from a mean of 23 to 157 mealybugs per plant, while in areas with mixed populations of this mealybug and Dysmicoccus neobrevipes Beardsley, densities ranged from a mean of 23 to 118 mealybugs per plant. Ants were present at all sample sites and on all dates. Pheidole megacephala (F.) was the most common ant species found. Anagyrus ananatis Gahan was the most common parasitoid reared. However, it attacked only D. brevipes, the dominant mealybug in the pineapple fields surveyed. Percent parasitization of D. brevipes by A. ananatis in the presence of ants ranged from 0.3 to 9.9%. Percent parasitization of D. brevipes and D. neobrevipes per plant by Euryrhopalus propinquus Kerrich ranged from 0.05 to 2.2%. Mean densities of the predators Lobodiplosis pseudococci (Felt), Nephus bilucernarius Mulsant and Sticholotis ruficeps Weise ranged from 0.05 to 5.75, 0.1 to 1.8, and 0.05 to 0.2 individuals per plant, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The leaf beetle Metriona elatior from Brazil-Argentina was screened in the Florida (USA)State quarantine facility as a potential biological control agent of tropical soda apple, Solanum viarum, a recently arrived weed species. Multiple-choice host-specificity tests were conducted in small cages (60 cm × 60 cm × 60 cm) using 95 plant species in 29 families. Adults fed heavily on the main target weed ( S. viarum), and on turkey berry, Solanum torvum (noxious weed of Asiatic origin); fed moderately on red soda apple, Solanum capsicoides (weed of South American origin), and eggplant, Solanum melongena (economic crop); and fed lightly on aquatic soda apple, Solanum tampicense (weed of Mexican-Caribbean-Central American origin), and onsilverleaf nightshade, Solanum elaeagnifolium(native weed widely distributed). M.elatior adults laid 84 to 97% of their egg masses on S. viarum, and 3 to 16% on S. melongena. Non-choice host-specificity tests were also conducted in quarantine in which M. elatior adults and neonate larvae were exposed to 17 and 19 plant species, respectively. Tests with the neonates indicate that this insect was able to complete its development on S. viarum, S. torvum, S. melongena, and S. capsicoides. Although some adult feeding and oviposition occurred on S.melongena in quarantine on potted plants in small cages, no feeding or oviposition by M. elatiorwas observed in field experiments conducted in Brazil. Surveys in unsprayed S. melongena fields in Argentina and Brazil indicated that M. elatioris not a pest of S. melongena in South America. The evidence obtained from the South-American field surveys, Brazil open-field experiments, and Florida quarantine host specificity tests indicate that M. elatior causes significant feeding damage to S. viarum, and does not represent a threat to S. melongena crops in the USA. Therefore an application for permission to release M. elatior against S. viarum in the USA was submitted in October 1998. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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