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In the Half-Earth vision, conservationists, scientists, and policymakers work together with local communities without compromising the interests of wildlife and ecosystems. The vision requires decolonizing nonhuman species through marshaling ecocentric philosophy, animal sentience science, and, crucially, local communities' support. While the studies of community attitudes to wildlife are accumulating, in the context of human-wildlife conflicts, there is a shortage of data on attitudes to the Half-Earth vision in countries with growing human populations and rapidly declining biodiversity, such as Nigeria. This paper aims to address this gap by exploring community attitudes to the Half-Earth vision through a pilot study of Yalwan Bongo and Kafi, the local communities living around Yankari Game Reserve, Bauchi State in Nigeria. This paper is a review of the main issues surrounding Half-Earth, with a preliminary case study that addresses some of these issues. This case study found that community representatives stand open to dialogue with local conservationists based on the mutual benefit of wildlife protection. The surveyed villagers had a greater understanding of particular species than of contributing factors in biodiversity declines, such as growing human populations, climate change, and bushmeat hunting. Educational programs that we recommend are targeted at the empowerment of individual community members to speak against poaching, but also at the development of basic literacy, numeracy, and professional skills to counter poverty and promote family planning.

Enforcement is critical to guarantee the effectiveness of environmental laws for nature conservation. Erroneously assuming an equivalence between the formal implementation of environmental legislation on paper and its practical enforcement in reality can result in biased conclusions with potential to ill-inform conservation actions and influence stakeholder perceptions. Here, using as an illustrative example the implementation of European sanitary regulations EC 1069/2009 and EU 142/2011 to manage livestock carcasses for wildlife conservation in Spain and Portugal, we demonstrate how the legal implementation of these regulations does not mean effective enforcement and compliance in practice. When interviewed, more Portuguese farmers declared to leave carcasses in the field without official authorization, than their Spanish counterparts, who were legally allowed to do so. This unforeseen result was further supported by GPS-tracked vultures feeding on livestock carcasses available in the Portuguese countryside, contrasting to what would be expected considering the sanitary regulations approved at each country at the time of this study. Accordingly, while agreeing with the global trend for weak enforcement and compliance with environmental legislation, our results provide additional evidence against assuming that the formal implementation on paper of environmental laws equals their real implementation on the ground. We highlight the need to systematically assess (not assume) observance of and compliance with environmental legislation and propose some ways to improve enforcement using as an example the above referred sanitary regulations. Communication-based interventions to publicize the regulations, reducing bureaucratic burden, and on-ground monitoring to assess observance and compliance have strong potential to enhance enforcement. Overlooking implementation gaps can give rise to biased interpretations on the effectiveness of these legal tools with consequences at both, the scientific and conservation arenas., PMT and JVLB were supported by a GRUPIN research grant from the Regional Government of Asturias (IDI/2021/000075). JVLB was supported by a Ramon & Cajal research contract (RYC-2015-18932) from the Spanish Ministry of Economy, Industry and Competitiveness. This research was partially financed by the LIFE Rupis project (LIFE14 NAT/PT/000855), funded by EU LIFE Programme, and by the Sentinelas project funded by Fundo Ambiental – Ministério do Ambiente e da Ação Climática.

Bushmeat hunting, trade and consumption is a growing biodiversity and food security concern. Much of the collated research is currently limited to forested regions however, despite indications of the increasing threat in savannas. Savanna regions are biodiverse and often have high-value wildlife tourism industries, but also have rapidly-growing rural populations, often highly dependent on natural resources. In this systematic quantitative literature review we seek to understand the state of knowledge about bushmeat in savanna regions in Africa. We aim to identify gaps in the literature, both spatially and topically, understand what methodologies are used, what common recommendations are made and what interventions have been quantified. We identified 144 relevant studies from the literature. Although studies have increased over time and diversified thematically, there were strong biases. Most studies were conducted in Tanzania, with gaps in research in southern Africa and the Sahelian region. Additionally, only 25 of papers investigated interventions used to reduce bushmeat hunting, with traditional enforcement being the most common intervention studied (53 of intervention studies, 13 of papers). Other frequently recommended interventions such as alternative incomes received little attention (14 of intervention studies, 3.5 of papers). Further, although many studies cite common drivers of bushmeat hunting such as income or livestock, the evidence for these drivers was lacking and contradictory. We reveal that although bushmeat in savanna regions is gaining recognition, many gaps in knowledge remain. This is the first study to systematically quantify the research about bushmeat in African savannas and aims to inform future research. © 2018 Elsevier Ltd

Human dimensions (HD) research is a discipline of conservation social sciences that applies social and psychological sciences to understand and influence conservation-relevant human behaviour. An understanding of the human dimensions is particularly required for bats because they are widely maligned and misunderstood and face many threats due to human behaviour. To gain a better understanding of the state of HD studies in bat conservation and address given critiques of social-science research undertaken by natural scientists, we assessed bat-related HD studies on four levels (1) authorships and the professional backgrounds of all authors, (2) conceptual foundations, including the range of contexts studied, the quality of literature reviews and conceptual framing in relation to drivers of human behaviour, (3) the extent to which authors follow social-science best practices and (4) recommendations. Our analysis of 68 papers revealed that compared to papers by natural scientists alone, those by multidisciplinary teams performed better at addressing a broader range of contexts and generating recommendations based on findings, but only slightly better on the conceptual-foundations and literature-review criteria. Our results suggest the need for more interdisciplinarity; specifically, early in the process. We also make ten recommendations for future bat-related HD research. Of these, five are intended to ground the field more firmly in conservation social science and five to prioritize future research. Collectively, our recommendations aim to solidify, accelerate and diversify bat-related HD research. Although bats are the focal animals, this paper's outcomes are potentially applicable to HD research on other taxa.

One of the major challenges in halting biodiversity loss is finding ways to address the issue in places where it would matter most; in the economic sectors of society that exert the strongest pressures on biodiversity such as agriculture, forestry and fisheries. Governments have acknowledged the need for this so termed mainstreaming under the Convention on Biological Diversity, but in practice have made little progress and struggle to find ways forward. In this paper we argue that the concept of mainstreaming was originally developed for situations where governments or intergovernmental organizations with explicit public mandates took the lead, but it is increasingly extended into various governance contexts where multiple types of actors at different levels (could) engage in conserving biodiversity. This paper aims to enable the identification of innovative repertoires of mainstreaming opportunities that optimally and realistically benefits from the broader governance context. Therefore it presents a framework, consisting of institutional, motivational and means dimensions for identifying key barriers and levers for mainstreaming biodiversity into economic sectors. By applying the framework on the forestry sector we show that it does not only help to identify new mainstreaming opportunities but it also shows directions for improving existing schemes as well.

Deforestation and degradation are threatening forests and woodlands globally. The deciduous miombo woodlands of sub-Saharan Africa are no exception, yet little is known about the flora and fauna they contain and the implications of their loss. Butterflies are recognised as indicators of environmental change; however the responses of butterflies in miombo woodlands have received little attention. This paper describes butterfly assemblages and their response to woodland utilisation in an understudied area of miombo woodland in south-west Tanzania. This is an area representative of miombo woodlands throughout sub-Saharan Africa, where woodland is utilised by local communities for a range of products, and is being rapidly converted to agriculture. Baited canopy traps and sweep nets were used to sample frugivorous and nectarivorous butterfly communities at different vertical stratifications in nine different study sites. 104 species were recorded, of which 16 are miombo specialists that have been recorded in Tanzania to the west of the country only. Indicator species were identified for three different levels of utilisation, with species from the sub-family Satyrinae indicating moderate utilisation. Generalised linear mixed effects models showed that butterfly species richness, diversity and abundance all decreased in response to increasing agriculture and anthropogenic utilisation. The loss of miombo woodlands is likely to result in declines in butterfly diversity. However, there was evidence of an intermediate disturbance effect for butterfly species richness, diversity and abundance with one utilisation variable, suggesting that a miombo woodland management plan that allows moderate sustainable utilisation in a heterogeneous landscape of mature miombo woodland and agriculture will simultaneously maintain butterfly communities and enable agricultural production. Deforestation and degradation are threatening forests and woodlands globally. The deciduous miombo woodlands of sub-Saharan Africa are no exception, yet little is known about the flora and fauna they contain and the implications of their loss. Butterflies are recognised as indicators of environmental change; however the responses of butterflies in miombo woodlands have received little attention. This paper describes butterfly assemblages and their response to woodland utilisation in an understudied area of miombo woodland in south-west Tanzania. This is an area representative of miombo woodlands throughout sub-Saharan Africa, where woodland is utilised by local communities for a range of products, and is being rapidly converted to agriculture. Baited canopy traps and sweep nets were used to sample frugivorous and nectarivorous butterfly communities at different vertical stratifications in nine different study sites. 104 species were recorded, of which 16 are miombo specialists that have been recorded in Tanzania to the west of the country only. Indicator species were identified for three different levels of utilisation, with species from the sub-family Satyrinae indicating moderate utilisation. Generalised linear mixed effects models showed that butterfly species richness, diversity and abundance all decreased in response to increasing agriculture and anthropogenic utilisation. The loss of miombo woodlands is likely to result in declines in butterfly diversity. However, there was evidence of an intermediate disturbance effect for butterfly species richness, diversity and abundance with one utilisation variable, suggesting that a miombo woodland management plan that allows moderate sustainable utilisation in a heterogeneous landscape of mature miombo woodland and agriculture will simultaneously maintain butterfly communities and enable agricultural production.

Protected area coverage has reached over 15% of the global land area. However, the quality of management of the vast majority of reserves remains unknown, and many are suspected to be “paper parks”. Moreover, the degree to which management can be enhanced through targeted conservation projects remains broadly speculative. Proven links between improved reserve management and the delivery of conservation outcomes are even more elusive. In this paper we present results on how management effectiveness scores change in protected areas receiving conservation investment, using a globally expanded database of protected area management effectiveness, focusing on the “management effectiveness tracking tool” (METT). Of 1934 protected areas with METT data, 722 sites have at least two assessments. Mean METT scores increased in 69.5% of sites while 25.1% experienced decreases and 5.4% experienced no change over project periods (median 4 years). Low initial METT scores and longer implementation time were both found to positively correlate with larger increases in management effectiveness. Performance metrics related to planning and context as well as monitoring and enforcement systems increased the most while protected area outcomes showed least improvement. Using a general linear mixed model we tested the correlation between change in METT scores and matrices of 1) landscape and protected area properties (i.e. topography and size), 2) human threats (i.e. road and human population density), and 3) socio-economics (i.e. infant mortality rate). Protected areas under greater threat and larger protected areas showed greatest improvements in METT. Our results suggest that when funding and resources are targeted at protected areas under greater threat they have a greater impact, potentially including slowing the loss of biodiversity.

This paper revisits Duffus and Dearden (1990) article 'Non-Consumptive Wildlife-Oriented Recreation: a conceptual framework' published in Biological Conservation two decades ago. This model was developed as a tool to assist managers and researchers in achieving the best outcomes for both environmental conservation and the provision of wildlife tourism experiences. The body of literature examining wildlife tourism has grown significantly over the intervening period; however, this highly respected model has not been subject to critical review even though a number of recent empirical studies have successfully applied the concept. This has created an opportunity for reflection on its merits and potential. In particular, this paper discusses these findings to assess the contemporary value of this approach. It is contended that the framework still provides an appropriate means of predicting and managing change in a wildlife tourism system. Given the ability of the model to combine theoretical perspectives with practical outcomes and the now emerging body of literature based upon it, continued application and refinement of this model is more pertinent than ever.

Scenarios are a powerful way in which the scientific community can inform future policies for transformative change. Forthcoming scenario work holds promise for the Nature Futures Framework, which through the concept of relational values, seeks to recognize a multiplicity of value positions on human-environment relations, including those of Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities (IPLCs). The objective of this Perspective paper is to propose a novel scenario skeleton titled "Rights for Life", which holds promise to achieve ambitious biodi-versity targets in a socially-equitable ways by focusing on the Nature's and IPLCs' rights. We demonstrate, through the case of Arctic reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) herding, that the "Rights for Life" scenario seems to deliver better social equity outcomes than the recently proposed "Half Earth" and "Sharing the Planet" sce-narios that have been designed to achieve ambitious conservation and biodiversity targets. The "Rights for Life" scenario is particularly fit for sparsely-populated indigenous homelands and rural regions where local commu-nities depend on culturally important nature-based livelihoods for their well-being. We recommend that future scenarios targeting human-environment relations should not only consider non-western and relational value perspectives, but also recognize the importance of Nature's and IPLCs' rights for ensuring transformative change for equity and the environment. Clear recognition of such rights can function as a basis for new regulations, market-based governance instruments, policies, and participatory governance instruments ensuring that viola-tion of Nature's and IPLCs' rights by societal developments is recognized, avoided, minimized, or at least compensated for.

Conservation is predominantly an exercise in trying to change human behaviour – whether that of consumers whose choices drive unsustainable resource use, of land managers clearing natural habitats, or of policymakers failing to deliver on environmental commitments. Yet conservation research and practice have made only limited use of recent advances in behavioural science, including more novel behaviour change interventions. Instead conservationists mostly still rely on traditional behaviour change interventions – education, regulation and material incentivisation – largely without applying recent insights from behavioural science about how to improve such approaches. This paper explores how behavioural science could be more widely and powerfully applied in biodiversity conservation. We consider the diverse cast of actors involved in conservation problems and the resulting breadth of behaviour change that conservationists might want to achieve. Drawing on health research, we present a catalogue of types of interventions for changing behaviour, considering both novel, standalone interventions and the enhancement of more traditional conservation interventions. We outline a framework for setting priorities among interventions based on their likely impact, using ideas developed for climate change mitigation. We caution that, despite its promise, behavioural science is not a silver bullet for conservation. The effects of interventions aimed at changing behaviour can be modest, temporary, and context-dependent in ways that are as-yet poorly understood. We therefore close with a call for interventions to be tested and the findings widely disseminated to enable researchers and practitioners to build a much-needed evidence base on the effectiveness and limitations of these tools.

7 Pág. Instituto de Ciencias Forestales (ICIFOR), Estimates of contemporary effective population size (Ne) can provide valuable information for genetic conservation and monitoring, pinpointing populations at higher risk of genetic erosion, decreased fitness, maladaptation and, ultimately, demographic decline. There are however potential limitations in the application of commonly employed genetic estimators of contemporary Ne to widespread forest tree populations. Genetic isolation by distance within populations, small and spatially restricted samples, among-population gene flow and overlapping generations are factors that can potentially affect the accuracy of marker-based estimates of contemporary Ne, depending on the demographic scenario. In particular, we illustrate the uncertainty faced by forest researchers and managers when interpreting contemporary Ne estimates obtained for continuously distributed tree populations with large census size N. To that end, we use previously published genotypic data of 21 Pinus pinaster populations, including distinct sampling schemes, together with a widely used method based on linkage disequilibrium patterns observed in a single (one-time) population sample. We hypothesize that spatially restricted sampling might be the main putative factor behind the apparently low Ne/N estimates obtained for the large and continuously-distributed populations studied here. Because of its statistically-inherent assessment difficulty, we call for caution when interpreting marker-based estimates of contemporary Ne for monitoring widely-distributed tree populations or small genetic conservation units embedded within large continuous tree populations., This work was supported by the Spanish Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (MAPAMA) [grant number AEG 17-048] in the frame of the measure 15.2 “support to the conservation and use of forest genetic resources” and under Regulation (EU) No 1305/2013 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 December 2013 on support for rural development by the European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development (EAFRD) with 75 % co-financing. This paper was also supported by the European Union 's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme [grant agreement No 862221 (FORGENIUS)]. We thank two anonymous reviewers for their constructive criticism.

Coastal human ecology (CHE) is a mixture of different theoretical and thematic approaches straddling between the humanities and social and natural sciences which studies human and coastal/marine interactions at the local-scale and through intense fieldwork. Topics of interest include human coastal adaptations past and present; the historical ecology of fisheries and future implications; local forms of marine governance and economic systems; local food security and livelihoods, and indigenous/local ecological knowledge systems among many research themes. In this paper, I explore different strands of CHE in the study of tribal, artisanal, and small-scale industrial fisheries from the mid-90s onward that can contribute to the foundational knowledge necessary for designing and implementing successful coastal fisheries management and conservation programs. Marine conservation has often failed due to a lack of understanding of the fine grained marine human-environmental interactions at the local scale. In this context, I also examine developing and future research directions in CHE, and discuss their potential contribution for filling the gap in existing approaches to actionable scholarship in marine conservation. The strength of many CHE approaches lies in their potential for bridging humanism and natural science, and thus CHE approaches are well equipped to address many of the challenges faced by marine conservation practitioners today.

Population control of feral horses has been the subject of public debate in many parts of the world in recent years due to wide-reaching ecological and societal impacts. However, the feral populations in these high-profile cases are not ‘native’ but are instead descended from animals which escaped from or were released by settlers. This paper considers i) the potential role of indigenous equids as conservation grazers within native ecosystems currently in poor condition, and ii) the value of supporting semi-wild native ponies specifically. We argue that the high ecological overlap between ponies and cattle reported in a range of studies means that they should be considered as alternative tools for conservation management, particularly in scenarios where there is a need to reduce the dominance of plant species avoided by more-selective small ruminants such as sheep. Semi-wild ponies could be particularly suited to conservation grazing because their genomes have been predominately shaped by natural and not artificial selection, meaning they may have adaptations no longer present in domesticated equids. With agricultural and environmental policy in the EU and UK under major review, it is anticipated that the wider delivery of public goods, rather than primary production, will be prioritised under future subsidy payment schemes. Recognising the value of native ponies as conservation grazers would broaden the range of routes by which land managers could achieve biodiversity gain, whilst simultaneously supporting at-risk equine genotypes.

1) .tif files are maps of each country depicting areas that can be protected using nature-based carbon projects. 2) The pixel values indicate the return on investments for trading carbon credits at a carbon price of 5 USD per ton of CO2. 3) The name of each file depict country code according to ISO alpha-3 (https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#search). 4) Countries that already protected 30% of its terrestrial area were not analysed (see paper) and therefore not published here. 5) Countries that cannot expand protected areas using nature-based carbon projects were also not published because no lands were identified.

The coronavirus pandemic is more fully exposing ubiquitous economic and social inequities that pervade conservation science. In this time of prolonged stress on members of the research community, primary investigators or project leaders (PLs) have a unique opportunity to adapt their programs to jointly create more equitable and productive research environments for their teams. Institutional guidance for PLs pursuing field and laboratory work centers on the physical safety of individuals while in the lab or field, but largely ignores the vast differences in how team members may be experiencing the pandemic. Strains on mental, physical, and emotional health; racial trauma; familial responsibilities; and compulsory productivity resources, such as high-speed internet, quiet work spaces, and support are unequally distributed across team members. The goal of this paper is to summarize the shifting dynamics of leadership and mentorship during the coronavirus pandemic and highlight opportunities for increasing equity in conservation research at the scale of the project team. Here, we (1) describe how the pandemic differentially manifests inequity on project teams, particularly for groups that have been structurally excluded from conservation science, (2) consider equitable career advancement during the coronavirus pandemic, and (3) offer suggestions for PLs to provide mentorship that prioritizes equity and wellbeing during and beyond the pandemic. We aim to support PLs who have power and flexibility in how they manage research, teaching, mentoring, consulting, outreach, and extension activities so that individual team members' needs are met with compassion and attention to equity.

Modern conservation requires robust predictions about how management will affect an ecosystem and its species. The large uncertainties about the type and strength of interactions make model predictions particularly unreliable. In this paper, we show how fuzzy cognitive maps can produce robust predictions in complex and uncertain ecosystems. The use of fuzzy cognitive maps has been increasing markedly, but there are two critical issues with the approach: translation of expert knowledge into the FCM is often done incorrectly; and sensitivity analyses are rarely conducted. Translating expert knowledge is a constant challenge for ecological modellers, often because experts know about the behaviour of a system, but modellers need to know model parameters, which subsequently lead to system behaviour. We describe how to correctly incorporate expert knowledge into FCMs, and we describe how to appropriately conduct uncertainty and sensitivity analysis. We illustrate this process with a previously published network for feral cat and black rat control on Christmas Island. Perverse indirect effects of conservation management are a key concern, and methods to help us make informed decisions are required. Fuzzy cognitive maps are a promising approach for this, but it requires the methodological improvements that we present here.

Because forest tree species face serious threats including insect and disease epidemics, climate change, and forest fragmentation and conversion, prioritizing species and forests for conservation is an essential management goal. This paper describes a species prioritization approach that incorporates both the rarity of species, because of the increased vulnerability associated with rare species, and their evolutionary distinctiveness (ED), a measure of evolutionary originality. Rarity and ED scores, and scores for the two combined, were calculated for 352 North American forest tree species. A weak but significant phylogenetic signal was associated with species rarity. The scores were used to weight species importance values on approximately 130,000 forest inventory plots across the conterminous United States. The resulting plot-level estimates of conservation value were employed to identify geographic hotspots of forests with high conservation value, and to assess whether forests with protected status effectively conserve rarity and ED. Rarity hotspots were detected in California, the Southwest, central Texas, and Florida. Hotspots of ED included locations along the Pacific Coast, in the Northern Rockies, and in scattered eastern locations. Protected forest areas across the United States effectively conserve ED, but not rarity. In fact, rarity was lowest in areas with the highest protection, and highest in areas with no or unknown protected status. Multiple-use protected areas had higher ED, but not rarity, than restricted-use protected areas. Protected area effectiveness varied across the country. Such spatially explicit assessment approaches can help determine which forests to target for monitoring efforts and pro-active management activities.

If the world stays on its current development path, the state of biodiversity will continue to decline. This is due to projected further increases in pressures, most prominently habitat loss and climate change. In order to reduce these pressures, biodiversity conservation and restoration, as well as sustainable resource use, needs to be an integral part of sustainable development strategies of primary production sectors, such as agriculture, forestry, fisheries and energy. This paper presents a model-based analysis of three alternative pathways described as Global Technology, Decentralized Solutions and Consumption Change to conserve biodiversity. Each of these pathways pursues international biodiversity goals together with a broader set of environmental sustainability objectives, including feeding the world, universal access to modern energy, limiting climate change and controlling air pollution. We show that different combinations of bio-physical measures, ecosystem management changes and behavioural changes can globally substantially reduce biodiversity loss in the coming decades (avoided Mean Species Abundance (MSA) loss is 4.4–4.8% MSA, compared to 9.5% MSA loss in the Trend), although the types of biodiversity conserved in the pathways will be different. The agricultural and forestry sectors together have until 2010 globally caused almost 60% of the total reduction in terrestrial biodiversity in MSA terms and 55% of the expected loss up to 2050. We show that increased productivity by technological improvements, increased use of ecological methods in agriculture and forestry, and consumption changes help to avoid biodiversity loss by 3.1–3.5% MSA. In addition, combinations of pathways, taking into account specific regional contexts, might result in even larger reduction of biodiversity loss. The changes needed in the agricultural and forestry sector to achieve this go well beyond current efforts to reduce their impact on biodiversity.

Without a shift to renewable energy sources, climate change will have adverse effects on many terrestrial and aquatic species. On the other hand, replacing fossil fuels with renewable energy will have different effects on wildlife, some negative. To protect biota, while navigating the complexities surrounding the transition to renewable energy, will require sharing knowledge between energy experts and wildlife experts, as well as policy makers and resource managers. This special issue is intended to advance the conversation. Interactions between renewable energy facilities and fauna are complex. Each source of renewable energy has its own conservation concerns, and each presents its own set of opportunities for mitigation; Other concerns and mitigations are shared. In this overview, we review climate risks to biota, clarify the complementarities among renewables for the conservation community, and summarize research on energy effects on biota for the energy community. The papers invited for this special issue address fossil (coal, oil, natural gas) and renewable energy (terrestrial biomass energy, hydropower, marine-hydrokinetic energy, wind energy, solar energy) and affected fauna. We hope that the results of these studies, and others like them, set us on a path toward low-carbon energy systems that provide society with energy while protecting future biodiversity.

Many fish species are threatened worldwide by overfishing, contamination, coastal development, climate change, and other anthropogenic activities. Marine renewable energy (MRE) is under development as a sustainable alternative to carbon-based energy sources. Regulators and stakeholders worry that MRE devices will add another threat to fish populations already under pressure. This paper reviews the current knowledge of potential effects of MRE development on fish. These may include collision with devices that may lead to injury or death; underwater noise generated by MRE devices that may affect fish behavior and health; electromagnetic fields from power cables and other electrical infrastructure that may lead sensitive fish species to approach or avoid them; changes in critical fish habitat, including nursery, feeding, and spawning grounds; shoaling of fish around MRE devices; and displacement of fish populations or communities around arrays of multiple MRE devices. Field- and laboratory-based studies that have examined fish presence, avoidance, and evasion around MRE devices suggest that collisions are rare. Progress is being made on data collection and modeling tools to estimate fish encounter rates with MRE devices, the consequences of collisions, and population-level ecological risks. Similarly, studies exposing fish to turbine-generated noise and electromagnetic fields demonstrate little effect on fish behavior; in fact, MRE device noise falls below reported hearing thresholds. Inquiries into the effects of MRE devices on fish are ongoing, and research is needed to ensure the health of fish populations while facilitating the sustainable development of renewable energy sources.

Infectious diseases can be key threatening processes for biodiversity conservation. However, establishing the relative importance of disease (among other threatening processes) as a driver of species declines can be challenging. Bias in the directions that a research field may take as it develops – due to factors such as conservation policy, funding, public perception, and available expertise and technology – may exacerbate this difficulty. Chlamydiosis (infection with bacteria in Family Chlamydiaceae) is an example of an infectious disease with a poorly understood role in koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) population dynamics. The arboreal folivorous koala is an internationally recognized iconic species of high conservation, sociocultural and economic value. To date, no studies have quantitatively examined the breadth and scope of research related to koala chlamydiosis, nor systematically identified the current research gaps. We systematically and quantitatively reviewed a comprehensive database of literature related to koala chlamydiosis, classified and examined the main foci of the research, and evaluated research gaps with the goal of assisting policy planning for funding further koala chlamydiosis research. We examined published literature with regard to journal category, authorship, funding, spatiotemporal scope, study foci and type, chlamydial species examined, methodological design and overall findings. Among the 117 peer-reviewed papers published between 1970 and 2016 that fit our criteria, the most striking finding was the relative lack of population-level disease studies within the last two decades to examine mechanisms of chlamydial infection dynamics. This research gap is of particular concern given the potential role of Chlamydia in koala population declines, and the recent dramatic changes in our understanding of pathogen phylogeny and improved diagnostic approaches. Our results demonstrate a pressing need for future in situ comprehensive longitudinal population-level studies from diverse geographic regions. These studies must utilize up-to-date diagnostic methods capable of distinguishing chlamydial species and strains to elucidate the role of chlamydial infection in koala population declines and the underlying mechanisms involved. They should also employ rigorous epidemiological methodologies and evaluate co-infection, habitat, climatic and demographic data. Our findings suggest some key research gaps concerning koala chlamydiosis, and are hence important for guiding future research into koala chlamydiosis and conservation.

When COVID-19 arrived, usual human activity around the world paused or slowed, and nature responded to the opportunity. Even in major urban areas, people remarked on the clearer, crisper, star- brightened night skies. This issue's collection of interesting papers provides insights into ways the natural world responded, but it would seem worthwhile to take a step back and frame that phenomenon in its intellectual and epidemiological context.

Researchers have highlighted a conspicuous dearth of analysis focused on political-economic structures and processes in the rapidly expanding literature exploring human-wildlife conflict and coexistence. In this paper, we respond by highlighting the importance of attending to the influence of such dynamics in understanding and addressing both conflict and coexistence in human-wildlife interactions in particular locations and well as across levels and scales. We describe how analysis from the perspective of the capitalist political economy and the “uneven geographical development” (UGD) it produces can help to shed light on how different forms of such interaction arise in specific places and times. We illustrate this mode of analysis through comparative discussion of two contrasting case studies of human-wildlife interaction in Costa Rica and Bulgaria. We demonstrate how the particular positioning of our research sites within the overarching societies – as well as each society's positioning within an evolving capitalist world-system – encourages either conflict or coexistence between people and wildlife depending on this positioning. We conclude by calling for more researchers to also explore the overarching political-economic structures shaping human-wildlife interaction in their own contexts of study in order to more effectively address this important formative factor in patterns of conflict as well as coexistence.

The endemic Hawaiian silversword and lobeliad lineages, which are two of the world’s premier examples of plant adaptive radiation, exemplify the severity of the threats confronting the Hawaiian flora, especially the threats posed by alien species. We have implemented collaborative reintroduction efforts with the endangered Kaʻū silversword (Argyroxiphium kauense) and Pele lobeliad (Clermontiapeleana)in Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park. The efforts with the Kaʻū silversword have involved rediscovery, helicopter assisted rescue of diminutive remnant founders, managed breeding, outplanting at two sites in the Park of more than 21,000 seedlings deriving from 169 founders, and facilitated achene dispersal following flowering. The efforts with the Pele lobeliad have involved rediscovery, air-layering of remnant founders while suspended on climbing ropes, managed breeding, and outplanting at two sites in the Park of more than 1,000 seedlings (to date) deriving from six of the seven known founders. We have linked the reintroduction efforts to landscape restoration at large scales in the Park and in adjacent State and private lands, thereby increasing the opportunities for substantial population growth and expansion of the Kaʻū silversword and Pele lobeliad in the future. Additionally, we have extended the reintroduction efforts, including the link to landscape restoration, to encompass all other endangered silversword and lobeliad taxa occurring historically on the eastern slopes of Mauna Loa or on Kīlauea. In so doing, we seek to restore the possibility of adaptive radiation of the silversword and lobeliad lineages going forward, especially on the youngest and most geologically active, and thus perhaps most evolutionarily dynamic, part of the Hawaiian archipelago.DedicationThis paper celebrates the centennial of Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park, which was founded in August 1916.

The loss of biological diversity within species has the potential to significantly reduce resilience in the face of environmental change. Conservation of genetic variation needs to consider all available sources of diversity within a species, and approaches are required to integrate population management across traditionally separate wild and captive population domains. Here we report on a study that utilises different types of genetic analysis at different taxonomic scales and across an in situ – ex situ transition to support conservation planning for the Japanese golden eagle, a subspecies in serious regional decline. Mitochondrial DNA sequencing and nuclear DNA profiling are used to investigate subspecies differentiation and diversity in the natural population, revealing relatively high levels of variation in Japan. These results are compared with data from a newly established conservation breeding programme that indicates good representation of wild genetic variation in the captive founders. However, subsequent population viability analysis (PVA) to examine the demographic and genetic future of the captive population demonstrates the severe effects of existing reproductive skews, suggesting that this population is not sustainable without intensive genetic management. Lastly, the use of available molecular tools to validate and reconstruct pedigrees in Japanese golden eagle are evaluated and discussed in the context of captive and wild conservation management. The paper highlights the importance of producing and utilising comparative molecular genetic data across the population management spectrum and the benefits of PVA to support the implementation of integrated conservation plans.

This paper highlights a disjunction between the basic motivation of conservation planners, policy-makers, and managers, which is to make a positive difference for biodiversity, and many of our day-to-day activities, which are tangential (at best) to the goal of avoiding biodiversity loss. At the core of this problem is the use of conservation measures (inputs, outputs, and outcomes) that do not explicitly address conservation impact, and thus risk undermining its achievement. These measures are used to formulate policy targets and operational objectives, gauge progress towards them, and identify priorities for action. In particular, the pervasive use of representation of biodiversity features as a sole basis for identifying priorities, and the considerable global effort directed towards increasing protected-area extent and assessing protected-area management effectiveness, exemplify that much conservation decision-making is founded more on belief systems than evidence. Measures such as the extent or representativeness of protected areas risk misdirecting conservation actions towards areas of low impact and misleading decision-makers and the public about conservation progress. To promote more effective, evidence-informed decision-making, analytical evidence can and should be used to test and refine decision-makers' implicit models of the world, focusing on predicting conservation impact - the future difference made by our future actions - to increase our effectiveness and accountability.

Intensive industrial development occurs in the ecologically significant boreal forest, including oil and gas development in northern Alberta, Canada. This forest is home to many highly-valued animal species including fisher ( Pekania pennanti ; formerly Martes pennanti ) and American marten ( Martes americana ). Second-generation anticoagulant rodenticides (SGARs) are commonly used near human infrastructure in developed areas to control and reduce damage from rodent pests. High body burdens of SGARs in rodent prey pose risks of secondary poisoning for fisher and marten that readily consume rodents. The objective of this research was to determine if fisher and marten living in anthropogenically-disturbed areas of northern Alberta showed evidence of SGAR exposure. Fisher and marten carcasses were collected from the region, aged, sexed, and liver samples were analysed for rodenticides using liquid-chromatography mass spectrometry (LCMS). SGARs were found in the livers of non-target fisher and marten. As SGARs were found in the livers of fisher with sufficient frequency for complete statistical analysis, analyses including ANOVA, linear regression, and spatial cluster analyses were used to assess spatial patterns exhibited by fisher exposure frequencies against potential explanatory variables such as boreal anthropogenic disturbances and land cover classes. Additionally, companies operating in the region were surveyed to identify their current rodent control measures in an effort to verify the results of the spatial analyses. This is the first study to demonstrate non-target SGAR exposure of fisher and marten in Canada. Exposure frequency in fisher exhibited clustering, which showed the strongest relationships to factors including total boreal disturbances, number of oil sands mines, and broadleaf forest cover. The spatial methods used in this paper provide tools to develop local interventions for mitigation and conservation efforts.

Habitat loss and fragmentation are global threats to biodiversity and major research topics in ecology and conservation biology. We conducted a systematic review to assess where – the geographic locations and habitat types - and how – the study designs, conceptual underpinnings, landscape metrics and biodiversity measures - scientists have studied fragmentation over the last two decades. We sampled papers from 1994 to 2016 and used regression modelling to explore changes in fragmentation research over time. Habitat loss and fragmentation studies are geographically and taxonomically biased. Almost 85% of studies were conducted in America and Europe, with temperate forests and birds the most studied groups. Most studies use a binary conceptual model of landscapes (habitat versus non-habitat) and static measures of biodiversity. However, research on fragmentation is slowly shifting from a focus on coarse patterns to more nuanced representations of biodiversity and landscapes that better represent ecological processes. For example, empirical research based on gradient or continuum models, that offer new insights into landscape complexity and species-specific responses to habitat fragmentation, are increasing in prevalence. We recommend that fragmentation research focuses on developing knowledge on underlying mechanisms and processes of how species respond to landscape changes, and that fragmentation studies be conducted in the full range of habitats currently experiencing high rates of landscape modification. This is crucial if we are to understand relationships between biodiversity and ecosystems and to develop effective management strategies in fragmented landscapes.

The use of systematic area-selection procedures to design protected areas can help optimize conservation actions. However, this process has rarely been used to identify high-risk mortality areas to protect wildlife from human impacts. Electrocution on power lines is one the most important human-related causes of bird mortality worldwide, especially for raptors. Identifying and correcting dangerous individual pylons can significantly reduce the number of electrocution victims, but applying this procedure at a large spatial scale is impractical. In this paper we describe a new selection process that allows for identification of high-risk mortality areas at large scales, combining spatial electrocution risk models with maps of species sensitivity to such an impact. We used the Valencia Region (eastern Spain) as our study system. The risk prediction map was built using bird electrocution records on 1 km × 1 km grids from 2000 to 2009 and the species sensitivity map was built using data on presence and use of four raptor species. The combination of both maps was compared to the distribution of Special Protected Areas and validated by local experts to identify prediction errors or gaps. The final proposal of high priority areas to protect birds from electrocution covered 16.3% of the Valencia Region. Our work supports the use of predictive models and sensitivity maps in the decision-making process to locate high priority infrastructure-related wildlife protection areas at a large scale.

Conservation biologists should seek to work with those involved in sustainable agriculture and rural development in expanded integrated approaches to reduce pesticide harm to humans, biodiversity and environmental services. Despite new evidence, conservation organisations have tended not to fully recognize the impacts of pesticides on biodiversity, and current conservation strategies pay little heed to addressing this threat. A comprehensive suite of strategies are required to reduce and rationalize pesticide use and mitigate risks to species conservation. This paper proposes six steps for conservationists to address pesticide problems: (1) revisit the land sparing versus land sharing debate and include the external impacts of agriculture as vital components in systematic conservation planning; (2) redefine narratives on intensive agriculture and support emerging forms of sustainable intensification; (3) focus and inform on improved delivery mechanisms and monitoring legal use to achieve better pesticide targeting and a major reduction in volumes used; (4) support efforts to reduce wastage and inefficiency in the food system by promoting technical changes and informed consumer choice; (5) design and encourage resilient temperate and tropical landscapes that minimise pesticide contamination on farms and at landscape scale; and (6) develop comprehensive policy responses to promote both better alternatives to synthetic pesticides and limit the use of the most harmful pesticides.

Most conservation efforts today recognise the need to involve the public if conservation is to succeed in the long-term. A common approach has been to try to educate the public on why they should care. However, information campaigns are often not effective in changing opinions, let alone behaviour. In this paper, we try establishing the basis for alternative approaches based on understanding people's motivations, perceptions and relationship with nature. Using focus groups, we look at the case of peatlands in Scotland, as an example of an ecosystem which is currently the focus of many conservation and restoration initiatives while seen as ‘problematic’ in the sense that those advocating its conservation assume that the general public does not care about peatlands. Our results show that perceptions of peatlands are ambivalent and many-facetted, and that they can be understood, metaphorically speaking, as good, bad and ugly at the same time: they can be seen as bleak wastelands; beautiful, wild nature and cultural landscape. The multiple and ambivalent views of ecosystems such as peatlands seem not to stem necessarily from lack of knowledge, but to be linked to biophysical characteristics, history, trade-offs between different uses and differences in personal relationships with nature. To ensure the long-term success of conservation, it is vital to understand and manage the public's different and ambivalent views about and attitudes towards landscapes of a greater or lesser degree of wilderness. Many practitioners have now come to accept and manage the fact that there is uncertainty in relation to the outcomes of the biophysical processes underpinning ecosystem restoration. It is now necessary to acknowledge human ambivalence and to find mechanisms for dealing with it. This should become one of the new pillars of conservation practice.

It has long been claimed that a better understanding of human or social dimensions of environmental issues will improve conservation. The social sciences are one important means through which researchers and practitioners can attain that better understanding. Yet, a lack of awareness of the scope and uncertainty about the purpose of the conservation social sciences impedes the conservation community's effective engagement with the human dimensions. This paper examines the scope and purpose of eighteen subfields of classic, interdisciplinary and applied conservation social sciences and articulates ten distinct contributions that the social sciences can make to understanding and improving conservation. In brief, the conservation social sciences can be valuable to conservation for descriptive, diagnostic, disruptive, reflexive, generative, innovative, or instrumental reasons. This review and supporting materials provides a succinct yet comprehensive reference for conservation scientists and practitioners. We contend that the social sciences can help facilitate conservation policies, actions and outcomes that are more legitimate, salient, robust and effective.

Assessments of biodiversity patterns and threats among African reptiles have lagged behind those of other vertebrate groups and regions. We report the first systematic assessment of the distribution, threat status, and climate change vulnerability for the reptiles of Tanzania. A total of 321 reptile species (including 90 Tanzanian endemics) were assessed using the global standard IUCN Red List methodology and 274 species were also assessed using the IUCN guidelines for climate change vulnerability. Patterns of species richness and threat assessment confirm the conservation importance of the Eastern Arc Mountains, as previously demonstrated for birds, mammals and amphibians. Lowland forests and savannah-woodland habitats also support important reptile assemblages. Protected area gap analysis shows that 116 species have less than 20% of their distribution ranges protected, among which 12 are unprotected, eight species are threatened and 54 are vulnerable to climate change. Tanzania's northern margins and drier central corridor support high numbers of climate vulnerable reptile species, together with the eastern African coastal forests and the region between Lake Victoria and Rwanda. This paper fills a major gap in our understanding of the distribution and threats facing Tanzania's reptiles, and demonstrates more broadly that the explicit integration of climate change vulnerability in Red Listing criteria may revise spatial priorities for conservation.

The survival of many populations of threatened mammals depends on the willingness of human communities to coexist with them. Gender is an important factor because men and women often have different perceptions of wildlife that influence their willingness to coexist with wildlife. While previous studies have hypothesized what may drive gendered perceptions of wildlife, research investigating the underlying drivers of these differences is lacking, especially in developing countries. The objective of this paper is to identify the underlying drivers of gendered differences in attitude toward globally endangered tigers (Panthera tigris) in Chitwan National Park (CNP), Nepal, where women are less likely to have a positive attitude. To accomplish this, we administered a social survey to 499 respondents living near the park. We analyzed survey data using nested linear regression models and decomposition analysis. Over 90% of the gender gap in attitude was explained through these analyses, with beliefs about tigers (e.g., benefits and costs) explaining two-thirds of the gap. The belief that tigers contribute to a healthy forest, by itself, accounted for one-third of the gender gap. Socio-economic characteristics explained 12% and experiences with tigers and perceptions of and control over risk each accounted for 6% or less of the gender gap. These results suggest that beliefs, rather than socio-economics, experience, or risk, underlie the majority of the gendered differences in attitudes toward tigers in CNP and that an appreciation of the ecosystem value of tigers plays a key role in people's positive attitudes. Analyses of gendered differences in attitudes are important for developing conservation interventions that address perspectives and issues of the entire population.

Non-compliance regularly negates the effectiveness of marine protected areas (MPAs) worldwide. Understanding and addressing non-compliance is critical given continued efforts to establish MPAs to meet international milestones (e.g., Aichi targets). We conducted a literature review and meta-analysis to address five key questions and research gaps for MPAs: 1) how is non-compliance best measured? 2) what are common drivers of non-compliance? 3) what is the overall prevalence of non-compliance? 4) how frequently is ecological failure of MPAs attributed to non-compliance? and 5) are there measurable management impacts on regulated fishing in MPAs (i.e., effective reduction of fishing)? We found 151 papers that had some focus on non-compliant resource extraction in MPAs and 96 that quantified it. Insufficient enforcement was the most cited driver of non-compliance, followed by several socio-economic drivers including lack of awareness, livelihood/economic gain, social norms, and ineffective governance. Prohibited fishing in MPAs was often reduced compared to outside areas, as shown by our meta-analysis. However, we found frequent reports and measures of non-compliance globally, and many cases of failed ecological performance attributed primarily to non-compliance (57% of 67 relevant studies). Overall, our synthesis demonstrates that non-compliance continues to be a prevalent issue for MPAs. Reducing non-compliance and ensuring effective MPAs will rely on continuous evaluation of non-compliance to inform adaptive management, as well as addressing the complex, interrelated drivers that arise throughout MPA planning, establishment, and management.

The COVID-19 pandemic has changed the way large citizen science events can be carried out—reducing gatherings of large groups and shifting toward individual, small-group, and online participation. This paper aims to describe changes in participant engagement in the City Nature Challenge (CNC) in Tokyo. The CNC is a four-day international event held in April to document biodiversity in cities using an online citizen science platform, iNaturalist. To assess the impact of COVID-19, we compared the number of participants, observations, species, and identification rates in 2019 (pre-pandemic) and 2020 (during the pandemic). We also used cluster analysis to elucidate participation patterns, and we assessed changes in the geographical distribution of observation sites. The results showed: (1) the number of participants and observations decreased by 63% and 68%, respectively; however, the number of species was almost the same in the two years, and the identification rate increased 154% in 2020 relative to 2019. (2) The most enthusiastic participants contributed in similar amounts in 2019 and 2020, but participation by less enthusiastic volunteers drastically declined. (3) The spatial distribution of observation sites changed from cluster-like to scattered. Understanding participant engagement during the pandemic could help to improve data quality, reduce geographical bias in observations, maintain records, and recruit more users in future years. Online citizen science could provide opportunities for many citizens to get outside and participate in conservation science during and after the pandemic., Graphical abstract Unlabelled Image

Introduced pathogen microorganisms are important drivers of ecosystem change. This paper highlights the impact of the non-native pathogen mildew multi-species complex on the natural regeneration dynamics of pedunculate oak (Quercus robur). Pedunculate oak is a European keystone tree species, hosting a great amount of biodiversity, but its future role in (near-)natural forests is uncertain due to the lack of natural regeneration. We reviewed historical and recent ecological, pathological and forestry literature on topics related to the impact of mildew on the success of advanced natural regeneration of pedunculate oak in (near-)natural forests. We propose a novel hypothesis, the ‘pathogen mildew hypothesis’, to explain the failure of natural regeneration of pedunculate oak. Mildew reduces shade tolerance and vertical growth in seedlings and saplings, so sapling vitality and competitiveness have diminished considerably since it was unintentionally introduced to Europe in the early 20th century. Due to mildew infection, pedunculate oak in many cases no longer regenerates well naturally under its own canopy. We found that forest ecologists and conservationists often overlook the impacts of this ‘recent’ driver, while the ‘closed-forest’ and ‘wood-pasture’ hypotheses do not adequately help the management of pedunculate oak regeneration. Nature conservation and forest management plans should thus also consider the impact of mildew in order to improve natural regeneration, promote close-to-nature management of pedunculate oak forests, and support associated diversity. More generally, nature conservation, forest ecology and close-to-nature forestry should pay greater attention to the impact of introduced non-native microorganisms on the dynamics of natural ecosystems.

A rich understanding of the productivity, carbon and nutrient cycling of terrestrial ecosystems is essential in the context of understanding, modelling and managing the future response of the biosphere to global change. This need is particularly acute in tropical ecosystems, home to over 60% of global terrestrial productivity, over half of planetary biodiversity, and hotspots of anthropogenic pressure. In recent years there has been a surge of activity in collecting data on the carbon cycle, productivity, and plant functional traits of tropical ecosystems, most intensively through the Global Ecosystems Monitoring network (GEM). The GEM approach provides valuable insights by linking field-based ecosystem ecology with the needs of Earth system science. In this paper, we review and synthesize the context, history and recent scientific output from the GEM network. Key insights have emerged on the spatial and temporal variability of ecosystem productivity and on the role of temperature and drought stress on ecosystem function and resilience. New work across the network is now linking carbon cycling to nutrient cycling and plant functional traits, and subsequently to airborne remote sensing. We discuss some of the novel emerging patterns and practical and methodological challenges of this approach, and examine current and possible future directions, both within this network and as lessons for a more general terrestrial ecosystem observation scheme.

Protected areas aim to conserve nature by providing safe havens for biodiversity. However, protection from habitat loss, poaching and other threats, is not guaranteed without adequate investment in their management. Here, we examine the relationship between management effectiveness using the Management Effectiveness Tracking Tool (METT) and trends of 79 populations of mammals and birds in 12 Southeast Asian protected areas from Cambodia, Indonesia, Thailand and Vietnam. Despite the negative influence of corruption on species population change, we find evidence that adequate financial and human resourcing are important determinants in achieving good biodiversity outcomes. Management resourcing, national government transparency and body size collectively explain 29% of the variation in animal population trends in our model. Our paper contributes to a growing evidence base linking management resourcing shortfalls to declining biodiversity populations in protected areas. Our key findings are relevant to international funding agencies, governments and NGOs, to aid decision making around the allocation of conservation resources in Southeast Asia.

Wildlife-vehicle collisions (WVCs) are caused by the close interaction of human and wildlife habitats worldwide. The large number of globally distributed accidents and the variety of environmental impacts characterize WVCs as intricate and challenging to predict. However, numerous research studies have been conducted to understand the causal relationships between drivers, animals, and the environment. In this paper, 645 publications are reviewed to provide an overview and a wide-ranging knowledge about WVC research. The study gathers the influencing factors on WVCs, systematizes the approaches for data collection, and identifies the main developments in analysis and predicting methods for WVCs. Factors such as the proximity to forest, a gentle topography with sparsely curves, street width, and seasonal differences are common denominators for WVCs - independent of the species -, while traffic volume, the distance to urban areas, or road accompanying infrastructure are not clearly assignable influencing or non-influencing factors. Different ways of data collection are observed, which range from carcass surveys by ecologists or crowdsourcing for species conservation to nearly real-time official reporting by involved parties as a basis for driving safety. Data collection and quality are discussed for their applicability, in particular, regarding the currently used analysing approaches for WVCs. Additionally, the advantages of the rarely employed machine learning approaches are discussed in terms of dynamic WVC risk prediction - including large-scale and temporally unrestricted transferability. These approaches may be helpful for prospective warning and road safety management on a global scale.

Human-wildlife conflict (HWC) is a complex conservation issue and acknowledging the human dimensions of the problem is critical. Here we propose the Wildlife Tolerance Model (WTM), a novel theoretical framework to identify key drivers of tolerance to living with damage-causing wildlife. The WTM proposes an outer model, where the extent to which a person experiences a species determines perceptions of costs relative to benefits of living with a species. This in turn determines tolerance. A second component, the inner model predicts eleven variables that may further drive perceptions of costs and benefits. In the current paper we test the outer model while in a forthcoming publication we test the inner model using a case study of human-baboon conflict in Cape Town, South Africa. Using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling we found support for the outer model. Experience explained 30% of variance in costs and benefits and 60% of tolerance was explained by perceptions of costs and benefits. Intangible costs and intangible benefits equally contributed to driving tolerance but tangible costs had no significant effect on tolerance. Separating two dimensions of experience, (i) exposure to a species explained costs more than benefits, and (ii) positive experiences explained intangible costs and benefits more than tangible costs while negative experiences equally explained costs and benefits. We discuss management implications of the findings and conclude that the WTM could be a useful diagnostic tool and theoretical framework to inform management interventions and policies to mitigate HWC.

Harp seals require pack ice as a platform for resting, to give birth and nurse their young. They are also subject to commercial and subsistence harvesting. In the late 1990's there were concerns that the Northwest Atlantic population would decline to very low levels unless a management system using Potential Biological Removals (PBR) was adopted. Canada followed a different approach and high harvests based on an alternative management framework continued throughout the next decade. We examined the status of the Northwest Atlantic harp seal population using a three parameter population model that incorporates information on reproductive rates, removals, and ice-related mortality acting on young of the year. By 1971, the population had declined to a minimum of 1.1 million animals and a quota was introduced, which allowed the population to increase. In 1996, the quota was raised and harvests increased substantially. Population growth continued, even as herd productivity declined. The population reached a maximum of 7.8 million animals in 2008 and has leveled off at around 7.4 million animals. Climate change is expected to result in a decline in the amount of seasonal pack ice in Atlantic Canada, which adds uncertainty to the future of this population. Although the results presented in this paper focused on how the status of this population has evolved over the last 60 years, our integrated modeling approach can also be used to examine scenarios that project into the future, to test the impacts of various management decisions in a changing environment.

Though protected areas are recognized as the cornerstone of global conservation efforts, their effectiveness in safeguarding biodiversity is currently debated. In particular, studies evaluating the counterfactual influence of protection status on community metrics derived from field-collected data are still scarce. In this paper, using data from a resurveying study, we assessed the contribution of the European Natura 2000 network to maintaining and/or improving through time habitat quality and functional integrity in Mediterranean coastal dune habitats, which appear among the most threatened ecosystems worldwide. Using multiple regression techniques, we tested the influence of protection status on habitat loss and on 10–15 years changes in the richness and cover of two highly informative plant groups: focal and alien species. Next to a substantial habitat loss, we observed an overall decrease in focal species richness and cover, whereas alien species were stable or slightly increasing, depending on the habitat. Surprisingly, changes in the analyzed metrics did not differ between protected and non-protected sites, thus providing no substantial evidence of the effectiveness of Natura 2000 in conserving and/or improving dune habitats. Taken together, such results suggest negative implications for the whole ecosystem structure and functionality, to be expected regardless of the protection status. This led us to reflect about the general inadequacy in the implementation of actual conservation measures in coastal habitats, discuss potential causes (lack of ad-hoc management plans and targeted conservation measures, scarcity of dedicated funding, bureaucratization), and stress the value of monitoring activities for evaluating conservation outcomes and reformulating current strategies.

It has been claimed that approaches to conservation framed in terms of nature’s contributions to people are congenial to ones framed in terms of rights. This paper provides what has so far been lacking – namely, an argument in support of this claim. The argument takes its cue from the observation that nature’s contributions to people can take the form of contributions to cultural identity. It is then argued that in some such cases one can justify conserving the relevant natural entities by appealing to the relevant people’s legal right to their own cultural identity. In such instances, it is proposed, appeals to nature’s contributions to people really are consonant with appeals to legal rights. The argument is developed by means of a discussion of the cultural value of reindeer herding in Saami communities in northern Europe.

Each year an estimated US$20–30 million is spent by government and non-government organisations in efforts to conserve the Bornean orangutan. However, recent population analysis reveals that these efforts have been unable to reduce species decline. A major aim of the Indonesian National Action Plan for orangutan conservation is to “improve in-situ conservation as the principal activity ensuring the orangutan's survival in its native habitats”. This paper summarises and examines current investment in conservation activities and provides recommendations on the strategic allocation of funds for future conservation. The cost data of major conservation initiatives, including orangutan rescue and rehabilitation, habitat protection, habitat restoration and community education, was collated from non-government agency annual reports and primary literature. A recent population density and distribution model, and reports documenting the effectiveness of conservation strategies for the species were then used to calculate population trends in the presence and absence of interventions. Using an open-access cost-effectiveness resource allocator tool, we investigate expenditure and program performance. We then provide recommendations on how to strategically allocate conservation funding to future programs to ensure maximum effectiveness.

In our recent paper (Farhadinia et al. 2017) we reported some observations concerning 23 attitudes to large predators in northeaster Iran. One of our findings was that attitudes to 24 leopards were more negative among respondents reporting more stock loss to wolves. We 25 speculated that measures to reduce conflict with wolves might therefore be beneficial for 26 leopard conservation. Ghasemi and Kyle (2017) argue that our interpretation is spurious, and 27 that our approach provides a ‘poor foundation for future research’.

This paper establishes the context for the special issue, “Detecting and Understanding Violations of Conservation Rules”. Illicit or non-compliant human behaviors may occur in all ecosystems and range from subsistence illegal resource collection to poaching by organized criminal syndicates. Such acts have an enormous impact on social–ecological systems, but monitoring non-compliance is challenging, primarily because the topic is sensitive and victims are voiceless. The future of many conservation areas depends upon compliance with conservation rules. However, with a growing human population, consumptive societies, and rapid expansion of business opportunities fueled by new technology, there is little doubt that demand will remain steady or increase for many of our natural resources. We outline major conservation compliance issues and impacts, and review models and methods used to monitor and respond to the problem for both subsistence and commercial non-compliance.

Invasive vertebrates are a leading cause of extinction on islands and rats (Rattus spp.) are one of the most damaging to island ecosystems. Methods to eradicate rats from islands are well established and there have been over 580 successful eradications to date. Increasingly, rat eradications are being implemented on tropical islands, a reflection of the need to protect the threatened biodiversity in the tropics. Yet rat eradications on tropical islands fail more frequently than those in temperate climates. In an effort to identify the main reasons for the lower success rate on tropical islands and possible solutions, a workshop was convened with 34 experts in rat eradication, tropical rodent and island ecology and toxicology. The workshop focused on projects using aerial broadcast of brodifacoum, a 2nd generation anticoagulant, because this approach has provided the highest success rate for eradicating rodents from islands. The workshop participants reviewed previously identified challenges to successful rat eradications on tropical islands including increased insect and crab densities resulting in competition for bait, year round or unpredictable timing of breeding rats and increased or unpredictable availability of alternative, natural foods. They also identified a number of new, likely reasons for the lower success rate on tropical islands and provided recommendations for how to address these risks in the planning and implementation of rat eradications. While the success rate of aerial broadcast rat eradications in tropical environments is quite high at 89% (n = 47), it is hoped that by following the recommended best practices provided in this paper, future success rates will be closer to the 96.5% (n = 116) demonstrated for aerial broadcast rat eradications on temperate islands. 2014 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license

Highlights ► We study how fruit bats are hunted and sold as bushmeat in Ghana, West Africa. ► Globally, bats are under-represented in market reviews, and threatened by hunting. ► 128,000 Eidolon helvum are sold each year in southern Ghana. ► Fruit bats do not follow the normal commodity chain for bushmeat. ► E. helvum may be missed by market surveys and threatened by this level of hunting., Harvesting, consumption and trade of bushmeat are important causes of both biodiversity loss and potential zoonotic disease emergence. In order to identify possible ways to mitigate these threats, it is essential to improve our understanding of the mechanisms by which bushmeat gets from the site of capture to the consumer’s table. In this paper we highlight the previously unrecognized scale of hunting of the African straw-colored fruit bat, Eidolon helvum, a species which is important in both ecological and public health contexts, and describe the commodity chain in southern Ghana for its trade. Based on interviews with 551 Ghanaians, including bat hunters, vendors and consumers, we estimate that a minimum of 128,000 E. helvum bats are sold each year through a commodity chain stretching up to 400 km and involving multiple vendors. Unlike the general bushmeat trade in Ghana, where animals are sold in both specialized bushmeat markets and in restaurants, E. helvum is sold primarily in marketplaces; many bats are also kept by hunters for personal consumption. The offtake estimated in this paper raises serious conservation concerns, while the commodity chain identified in this study may offer possible points for management intervention. The separation of the E. helvum commodity chain from that of other bushmeat highlights the need for species-specific research in this area, particularly for bats, whose status as bushmeat is largely unknown.