Search

We constructed a computation scheme that combines GIS, simulation and optimization techniques for assessing the moisture change, dry matter loss, transportation costs and net present value of solid forest fuel piles. This scheme was applied to predict the value of a stock composed of multiple piles, and to find the optimal feedstock allocation strategy, i.e. the selection of piles and the combustion time so that the total energy yield or the economic value of the energy production is maximized. According to the simulation, single Norway spruce energy wood piles reached their maximum energy content during July–August in boreal conditions in Finland. If a pile was created between January–September, the maximum energy content occurred in the same year, whereas for piles created between October–December, the maximum occurs in the summer of the following year. In the optimized combustion sequence, the piles generated in early Year 1 were combusted first. The main outcome of the study was that the simulation-optimization scheme can increase the gained net present value of the feedstock by 2.0%–6.4%, and the benefit increases with increasing heterogeneity of the feedstock. Forest fuel supplier can get considerable savings by applying the presented system to decide the combustion sequence of the existing feedstock. From practical point of view this is remarkable because the savings can be achieved without any investments only by arranging the transportation sequence. The presented computation system uses easily available input, can be modified to different condition, and can be run with standard IT-resources.

Laws mandating the physical dimensions of freight transport vehicles were changed in Finland and the new legislation enables higher gross weights as well as larger load capacities. The aim of this study was to examine truck transportation costs associated with forest chips and forest industry by-products as a function of transportation distance and procurement volume in order to determine the most cost-effective vehicle type for each assortment and find out how much the new vehicle types can improve the efficiency of wood biomass transportation. The transported assortments were whole-tree and logging residue chips produced at roadside landings, sawdust, and bark or sawmill wood chips from forest industries and ground stumps from terminals. The transportation costs were calculated as a function of permissible payload and transportation distance from the loading point to the end-use facility on the basis of existing driving speed models, productivity parameters, GIS data and hourly cost data. The results of this paper indicate that the new measures, technology and weight limits for heavy vehicles represent a significant cost reduction and efficiency improvement potential when transporting forest chips and forest industry by-products. The 69-tonne truck-trailer was a feasible choice when the payload was not limited by the bulk weight of the forest industry by-products. With heavier forest industry by-products, such as sawmill wood chips and bark, the 76-tonne truck-trailer was the most feasible choice. The results showed clearly that the transporting costs associated with using the new type truck-trailers were lower than those for conventional 60-tonne truck-trailers in all assortments.

In theory, China has vast potential forest resources for production of energy, but utilization on an industrial scale has been negligible. We assessed the practical possibilities and barriers for a forest energy business in a case study in northern China. The specific objectives of the study were 1) to assess the availability of forest biomass for energy production, 2) to determine feasible supply chains, and 3) to estimate the biomass fuel supply costs. Based on the case study results, the stand-level removals of the intended feedstock were low and the supply costs were relatively high. Suggestions for increasing the raw material basis, lowering the costs and further research and development were given. We conclude that although the case study area may not be promising from the feedstock point of view, the development could be started with small steps and proven technology. In order to avoid expensive mistakes further research for transfer of know-how and technology is needed.

Previous research in forest biomass procurement has been focussing on reducing harvesting costs. However, organisation and management of supply chains as well are considerable cost factors. The present study applies a methodological framework to investigate two forest biomass supply chains in different operational environments of two European countries (Finland and Germany) in order to identify the business processes and stakeholders making up the supply chains using a business process mapping methodology. Additionally, the work time expenditure for organisational and managerial tasks for each of the supply chains is estimated using discrete-event simulations. The business process mapping revealed that the number of processes in the supply chains varies considerably involving 213 project objects (activities, information items, others) in the Finnish supply chain and 268 in Germany. The work time expenditure on managerial and organisational tasks assessed by discrete-event simulation was 1483 min/100 m3 in the Finnish and 1381 min/100 m3 in the German supply chain. Even though the results of the study are company specific and cannot be directly generalized, as each supply chain reflects the characteristics of its operational environment, the proposed methodology has shown its potential for the in-depth analysis of supply chains in forest business and it is a step towards holistic cost calculation and business process improvement approaches on supply chain level.

At present, the utilization of timber in the Northern part of the Scottish Highlands is low due to a lack of a wood utilizing industry. As a consequence, the majority of forest owners do not receive any income from timber and in some cases stumpage prices can even be negative. At the same time, increasing prices of oil, gas and electricity pose a great challenge for local industries and homeowners. The establishment of wood fueled heating systems is therefore expected to improve the situation and at the same time create a market for the local timber resources. Consequently, a local energy source to produce heat and electricity at a competitive price would have positive benefits for both local industries and forest owners. Due to the current lack of competition, roundwood could be chipped for fuel, which has many associated benefits compared to the harvesting and chipping of logging residues. It is the aim of this research to apply existing Finnish know-how in regards to wood fuel harvesting in order to develop and investigate the price level of sustainable and local wood fuel supply chains. To determine the most suitable supply chain for forest fuels, various research methods were applied. An estimation of the forest resources in the Wick area was the first step of the research. The different cost components of the supply chain such as cutting, forwarding and chipping were then calculated based on Finnish experiences and adapted to conditions in Northern Scotland. Detailed transportation distance calculations and cost of transportation were calculated using GIS tools. Of the various supply chain designs considered, chipping at the landing seems to be the most suitable option. Chipping the roundwood at a central terminal would also be feasible; however, a suitable site would have to be identified since chipping of the material at the heating plant is not an option. Calculations indicate that forest chips can be delivered starting from approximately 20 € MWh −1 within a 50 km transportation distance when chipping is at roadside. If the transportation distance is 100 km wood chips could be delivered at approximately 23 € MWh −1 . Results from the GIS analysis indicate that a sufficient supply of raw material will be available in the future. According to these calculations forest fuels can be a competitive energy source for heat and electricity production in Northern Scotland.

Finland and Sweden have been forerunners in the development of wood harvesting machinery and methods. In both countries, small- and large-scale supply systems for wood chips have been in operation for several decades. More recently, the production and use of forest chips from logging residues and small diameter trees has been growing rapidly. The European Union (EU) has set ambitious targets for the use of renewable energy to mitigate climate change and to increase domestic energy security and self-sufficiency. The largest unutilised source for renewable energy in the EU is forest biomass. European forests could fulfill one third of the goal set for biomass-based energy production in the EU’s Biomass Action Plan. In addition, member countries have started national programmes to promote the use of biomass for energy. As a result, interest in Nordic forest energy technology has been increasing rapidly in other parts of the EU. The Finnish Forest Research Institute and its collaborators have been running a technology transfer project in ten European countries, with the goal of tailoring and adapting Nordic forest technology to local conditions through analysing the applicability, costs and overall competitiveness of selected feedstock supply technologies. This paper summarizes the findings of feasibility studies carried out in Poland and Scotland and gives an overview of the current situation and development trends of forest energy in the European Union.

A significant amount of logging residues is available for recovery in clear-cut areas. The forest residues’ potential has usually been estimated using biomass models. In Norway spruce (Picea abies) dominated stands, a large share of material is left on site especially due to dropping of needles as residues are left on site to dry in small heaps. In this study, we compared the measured dry weight of logging residues at a power plant with the potential biomass estimations made at a stand level. The study was performed in eight Norway spruce dominated stands, three of which were located in eastern Finland (North Karelia region) with the remainder being in Central Finland. The dry weights of branches, needles and stem tops were estimated using biomass models developed for individual trees by Repola et al. [1] . These dry weights were also compared with Swedish biomass models produced by Marklund [2] . The diameter and tree height information of each harvested tree served as input data in these model-based computations. Tree diameter information was obtained straight from the harvester’s stem value files, while the height information was obtained from models using the data from the stem value files as input. Inventory data before logging was used as a control material for harvester based estimates to spot possible measurement errors on the harvester measurement data. In addition, inventory data were used to get the crown height information, which was not available in the harvester measurement data. It was found that the average recovery rate was approximately 62% when applying Repola’s et al. [1] models and 61% when applying Marklund’s [2] models. However, variation between the logging sites was high. According this study, at least a third of the residues remains on the logging site if they are seasoned during the spring and summertime in small heaps.

The substitution of biomass for fossil fuels in energy consumption is a measure to mitigate global warming, as well as having other advantages. Political action plans for increased use exist at both European and national levels. This paper briefly reviews the contents of recommendations, guidelines, and other synthesis publications on sustainable use of forest biomass for energy. Topics are listed and an overview of advantages, disadvantages, and trade-offs between them is given, from the viewpoint of society in general and the forestry and energy sectors in particular. For the Nordic and Baltic countries, the paper also identifies the extent to which wood for energy is included in forest legislation and forest certification standards under the “Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification” (PEFC) and the “Forest Stewardship Council” (FSC) schemes. Energy and forest policies at EU and national levels, and European PEFC forest standards are analysed. With respect to energy policies, the utilisation of wood for energy is generally supported in forest policies, but forest legislation is seldom used as a direct tool to encourage the utilisation of wood for energy. Regulations sometimes restrict use for environmental reasons. Forest certification standards include indicators directly related to the utilisation of wood for energy under several criteria, with most occurrences found under environmental criteria. Roles and problems in relation to policy, legislation, certification standards, recommendations and guidelines, and science are discussed.

The extraction of residues from the harvesting processes for energy production is common practice particularly in Finland and Sweden. Furthermore, the removal is expected to increase also in Central European and the Baltic countries. The extraction of forest biomass provides an extra source of income for the forest owner and positively affects the economy of the forest operation, scenic values and reduces chances of an insect pest outbreak. At the same time, the harvesting of forest residues affects the ecological state of the forest site both in the long term and short term. For example, nutrient depletion might have a negative effect on the future growth of the stand and additionally may be detrimental for biodiversity. The impact on the stand can be manipulated by either seasoning the residues so that needles are left in the stand or through compensation fertilizing using ash. The individual forest owner is faced with a large number of options regarding forest fuel recovery though they have only limited knowledge of the potential impact on the forest ecosystems. Consequently, they will probably have difficulties making a decision. Another aspect is that various forest owners have different preferences regarding economical or ecological factors. A computer-based decision support program is therefore developed to assist the forest owners in making a decision concerning the utilisation of wood for energy. The program deals with a large number of aspects such as revenues from sales, environmental effects and silvicultural benefits. The forest owner provides the program with the basic data of the forest site such as site classification, basal area, mean height and diameter. Thereafter, the forest owner can rank their personal preferences, for instance, how they weigh the importance of net income, nutrient loss, biodiversity, scenic value or the risk of insect pests. The results of various treatment options are then presented to the forest owner, and recommendations for further additional treatment (amount of fertilizer) will also be provided. The decision support program is a unique tool to assist the forest owner to make a comprehensive decision on whether they should harvest forest residues on their forest site and, if they decide to do so, what fuel recovery option will be the most beneficial for them. The EnerTree decision support program also provides an excellent opportunity to convey knowledge gained in research to the forest owner by very practical and understandable means.

The integration of logging residue extraction, along with the establishment of a new stand and soil preparation is a new idea. A dual-purpose machine has been developed in Finland. It can be used as both a scarifier and a slash forwarder without the need for time-consuming conversion work. According to research results, the machine has proved to be rather competitive. In average conditions, the integration decreases the cost of scarification and residue recovery by about 10%, when compared to separate operations with two machines. Slash forwarder–scarifier is ideally suited for use in small regeneration areas, where the costs of moving two separate machines between sites would constitute a large share of the total costs. By the slash forwarder–scarifier operators exposure to the whole body vibration during the work decreases due to slower driving speed, the machine's greater weight and the position of scarifying plates in the middle of the machine body.

Chip transportation is undertaken by private transportation enterprises that are contracted by a larger wood fuel trader. Compared with industrial roundwood supply the volumes and value of wood fuel supply are markedly lower. As a result, the possibilities to invest in information systems for transport management are limited. New portable, wireless communication techniques and internet-based systems for fleet management enable more cost-efficient control systems with low investment costs in hard and software and also low operating costs. Mobile handsets with GPS, digital road map display and global positioning systems (GPS) or general purpose radio service data transfer protocol can be used as mobile terminals in chippers and trucks. In addition, transport management personnel can use them to locate in-forest wood fuel storage piles into the map database as well as point suitable routing to the storage piles. In a pilot study, conducted in Central Finland, an internet based management tool, Arbonaut Fleet Manager™, was tailored for forest fuel supply chain management and trailed for three months. It was found that use of mobile handsets with GPS and map display assisted especially in exact location of in-forest wood fuel storage piles by managers. They assisted also trucks and chippers in navigation to storages and landings, but the screen was too small for reading during driving. The management system was found helpful in stock accounting and GPS-based vehicle tracking gave transportation distances directly for invoicing.