Search

The amygdaloid nuclear complex has been linked to the regulation of emotional behavior and energy regulation in that emotional stress might cause either reduction or enhancement of eating. We examined hypothalamic neuronal origin of feeding/arousal-related peptidergic fibers containing cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART) and neuropeptide Y (NPY) located in the rat amygdala along with its efferent projections to the brainstem monoaminergic nuclei. First, central (CeA) as well as medial (MeA) amygdala, among several amygdaloid subdivisions, exhibited the most prominent NPY or CART immunostaining which consisted of a substantial number of somata as well as labeled fibers. When we examined hypothalamic neuronal origin of NPY or CART fibers projecting to the CeA and MeA, medial and lateral arcuate nuclei were neuronal origins of NPY and CART fibers, respectively. However, the majority (>70%) of amygdala-projecting CART neurons which co-contained melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH) originated from the lateral hypothalamus (LH), zona incerta (ZI), and dorsal hypothalamic area (DA). This observation implied that the CeA as well as the MeA might receive potent second-order (and downstream) feeding-related CART input from the lateral hypothalamic regions in addition to first-order CART or NPY input from the Arc. Second, a large number of CeA neurons projected to the locus coeruleus (LC), whereas only a small number of MeA cells projected to the dorsal raphe (DR); none of the CeA or MeA cells provided dual projections to the LC and DR. Finally, a portion of MCH cells in the LH, ZI, and DA sent divergent axon collaterals to the CeA and LC. Considering that the CeA sends substantial GABAergic input to the LC, the present observation might serve as an anatomical substrate to support the potent hypnogenic role of MCH neurons in the LH regions during cataplexy and REM sleep. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on the importance of tuberomammillary nucleus (TMN) as a target for feeding/arousal-related functions, we aimed in the present study to investigate hypothalamic neuronal origin of neuropeptide Y (NPY) and cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART) fibers projecting to the histaminergic nucleus. In the first series of experiments, we examined NPY (or CART) fiber distribution within the boundary of adenosine deaminase (ADA)-immunoreactive (ir) TMN regions; extensive NPY (or CART)-ir axon terminals were observed in E4 (TMMd), E3 (TMMv), and E2 (TMVr) subdivisions. NPY varicosities co-contained vesicular GABA transporters (vGAT). CART boutons, however, contained either vGAT or vesicular glutamate transporters (vGLU), which suggested dual (or multiple) origins of CART fibers. Based on the previous observation on melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH)-ir neuronal elements in the TMN, their coexistence with CART peptide was examined in detail. In E 4 subdivision, approximately 40.8% of MCH-ir somata co-contained CART, but the proportion was reduced to 24.1% in E 3 region. In E 2 and E 1 (TMVc) regions, only MCH-ir axon terminals existed without any MCH-ir somata. In the second series of experiments, we investigated hypothalamic neuronal origin of NPY (or CART) fibers projecting to the TMN. The arcuate nucleus (Arc) was the sole source of hypothalamic NPY fibers projecting to the nucleus. In contrast, CART fibers in the TMN originated from the Arc as well as the other hypothalamic nuclei including the retrochiasmatic nucleus, paraventricular nucleus, lateral hypothalamus (LH), zona incerta (ZI), and dorsal hypothalamic area. Quantitative analysis showed that arcuate CART projection to the TMN occupied approximately 23.5% of the total hypothalamic CART input to the nucleus, while the rest originated mainly from the LH and ZI. The present observations suggested that the TMN might play a key role in energy balance and arousal, by receiving periphery-derived, first-order NPY (or CART) inputs from the Arc as well as second-order (and downstream) CART inputs from the other hypothalamic nuclei. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The locus coeruleus-norepinephine (LC-NE) system is implicated in mediating several aspects of arousal. Alterations in LC neuronal discharge is associated with distinct changes in behavior, cognition, sensory processing and regulation of the sleep-wake cycle. Changes in LC output and subsequent release of NE in target brain regions help adjust arousal state to respond appropriately to environmental conditions and behavioral circumstances. One way in which LC activity is controlled is through release of endogenous neuropeptides. Based on the sleep-wake cycle and environmental cues specific neuropeptide afferent systems are activated, innervating the LC. These neuropeptides include: corticotropin releasing factor (CRF), orexin (ORX), endogenous opioids, substance P (SP), melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH), neuropeptide Y (NPY) and somatostatin (SS). This review summarizes studies examining the neuroanatomical projections of these neuropeptides, their receptors in the LC, the actions on LC neurons and downstream NE release, as well as the behavioral and cognitive effects associated individual neuropeptide-mediated innervation of the LC. Finally, the relationship between individual neuropeptides, the LC-NE system and various clinical disorders is discussed, providing evidence for possible therapeutic targets for treatment of several arousal- and stress-related disorders. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled SI: Noradrenergic System . [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on the importance of paraventricular thalamic nucleus (PVT) as a relay station of energy balance, arousal, and food reward, we aimed in the present study to determine projection patterns of neuropeptide Y (NPY), cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART), melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH), and orexin (ORX)-ergic fibers to the PVT. First, the distribution of peptidergic axon terminals within the PVT was examined. NPY and CART terminals were confined within the boundary of the thalamic nucleus, exhibiting almost identical distribution. MCH terminals were rarely observed. In contrast, ORX terminals were as extensive as NPY/CART terminals, but spread into the peri-PVT region. Second, neuronal origin of feeding/arousal-related peptides projecting to the PVT was investigated. NPY neurons were observed in the medial subdivision of the arcuate nucleus (Arc), whereas CART cells were in the lateral Arc as well as other hypothalamic regions including the paraventricular hypothalamic nucleus, lateral hypothalamus (LH), dorsal hypothalamic area, and zona incerta. Both NPY- and CART-fiber projections to the PVT were bilateral; ipsilateral proportion was 54.0%±3.6% ( n =6) for NPY and 57.1%±2.5% ( n =6) for CART. The total number of CART neurons projecting to the PVT exceeded that of NPY cells; the ratio of labeled CART neurons to NPY cells was 2.4±0.2 ( n =6). In contrast, ORX-ergic fiber projection to the PVT exhibited a slight ipsilateral dominance (62.7%±1.6%, n =6), with majority of labeled cells located in the LH medial to the fornix (72.2%±2.3%, n =6). Third, based on heavy projection from the PVT to the nucleus accumbens shell (NAcSh), the convergence of NPY and CART terminals on a single PVT neuron was identified; the proportion of labeled PVT neurons that received converging NPY/CART terminals compared with the total PVT neurons projecting to the NAcSh was 2.7%±0.6% ( n =3). Finally, PVT cells receiving NPY, CART, or ORX terminals provided divergent axon collaterals to NAcSh and medial prefrontal cortex. The present observations provided the anatomical evidence that the PVT might play an essential role in the integration of antagonistically-acting, feeding/arousal-related peptidergic inputs on their way to the cortical reward circuit. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study was designed to reveal cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART)- or neuropeptide Y (NPY)-immunoreactive neuronal projections from the hypothalamic arcuate nucleus (Arc) to the dorsal raphe (DR) and/or the locus coeruleus (LC) in the rat. Our results demonstrated that CART or NPY axon terminals formed close appositions to the neuronal profiles in the DR and the LC. Thus, arcuate sections were immunostained for the CART or NPY after the injections of green RetroBeads™ into the DR and red tracer into the LC (or vice versa). First, retrogradely-labeled CART cells were mainly observed in the lateral Arc without colchicine. Of the total population of arcuate CART neurons, DR- and LC-projecting cells were 5.7%±0.9% and 6.6%±0.7%, respectively. In addition, a subset (3.3%±0.7%) of CART neurons provided divergent axon collaterals to the DR and the LC. Second, retrogradely-labeled NPY cells were observed in lateral or ventral borders of the medial Arc only after colchicine injection. Of the entire NPY cell population, DR- and LC-projecting neurons were 1.5%±0.3% and 1.3%±0.3%, respectively. Only a scanty proportion (0.1%±0.0%) sent axon collaterals to the DR and the LC. These observations suggested that arcuate CART or NPY system might have a potential influence on the brainstem monoaminergic nuclei, modulating their roles in feeding, nociception, emotional behaviors, arousal, and stress responses. Furthermore, a portion of arcuate CART neurons (along with only a few NPY cells) sending divergent axon collaterals to the DR/LC might have a simultaneous (and possibly more efficient) way to exert their specific influences on the monoaminergic nuclei. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: GABAergic neurons in the medial amygdala (MeA) have been indicated in information processing in reproductive behavior and fear/anxiety. However, basic knowledge of their physiological and morphological properties is still very limited, probably due to the technical challenge to selectively record the GABAergic neurons. In this study, I characterized properties of the MeA GABAergic neurons by performing whole-cell patch clamp recordings from brain slices of adult knock-in mice selectively expressing green fluorescence protein (GFP) in GABAergic neurons. The majority (73%) of GABAergic neurons exhibiting low threshold calcium spike were classified as type I neurons, with morphological properties of being bitufted or stellate, and dendrites either aspiny or covered by various shapes of spines. Axonal collaterals of some neurons were observed near somata as well as in other amygdaloid nuclei. Neurons incapable of generate low threshold calcium spikes were divided into two types. Type II neurons (11%) exhibited hyperpolarization-activated sag and higher input resistance (>400MΩ). Most Type II neurons exhibited asymmetric dendritic trees extending towards the superficial layer covered with long neck dendritic spines. The axons of type II neurons formed large collaterals and projected to other amygdaloid nuclei. Type III neurons (16%) lack prominent hyperpolarization-activated sag and possessed lower input resistance (<400MΩ). These neurons were local interneurons with smooth multipolar dendritic trees. Since both MeA and nearby amygdaloid nuclei are involved in fear/anxiety processing, two types of MeA GABAergic projection neurons and a third type of interneurons that might participate in anxiety-related behavior were revealed by my present study. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This study characterized morphological changes in the cortex and hippocampus of Sprague–Dawley rats following photothrombotic infarction and epileptogenesis with emphasis on the distribution of neuropeptide Y (NPY) expression. Animals were lesioned in the left sensorimotor cortex and compared with age-matched naive and sham-operated controls by immunohistochemical techniques at 1, 3, 7, and 180 days post-lesioning (DPL). NPY immunostaining was assessed by light microscopy and quantified by the optical fractionator technique using unbiased stereological methods. At 1, 3, and 7 DPL, the number of NPY-positive somata in the lesioned cortex was increased significantly compared to controls and the contralateral cortex. At 180 DPL, lesioned epileptic animals with frequent seizure activity demonstrated significant increases of NPY expression in the cortex, CA1, CA3, hilar interneurons, and granule cells of the dentate gyrus. In addition to NPY immunostaining, neuronal degeneration, cell death/cell loss, and astroglial response were assessed with cell-specific markers. Nissl and NeuN staining showed reproducible infarctions at each investigated time point. FJB-positive somata were most abundant in the infarct core at 1 DPL, decreased markedly at 3 DPL, and virtually absent by 7 DPL. Activated astroglia were detected in the cortex and hippocampus following lesioning and the development of seizure activity. In summary, NPY protein expression and morphological changes following cortical photothrombosis were time-, region-, and pathologic state-dependent. Alterations in NPY expression may reflect reactive or compensatory responses of the rat brain to acute infarction and to the development and expression of epileptic seizures. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Niemann–Pick disease type C (NPC) is characterized by progressive neurodegeneration and arises from mutations in the NPC1 gene. Cholesterol has received most attention in the pathogenesis of NPC, but normalizing lipid levels in humans or mouse does not prevent neurodegeneration. In NPC mouse, neuronal degeneration in the cerebellum is the most commonly detected change, and thus previous studies have tended to focus on the cerebellum, especially Purkinje cells. Although numerous peptides have been found in the mammalian central nervous system, little data on neurotransmitters in NPC are available, and information on neurotransmitter system abnormalities could explain the complex and characteristic deficits of NPC. Thus, we performed an immunohistochemical study on NPC mouse cortices to compare cell numbers exhibiting vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP), neuropeptide Y (NPY), and substance P (SP) immunoreactivity. In terms of VIP and NPY-immunoreactive (ir) cell numbers in the cerebral cortex, SP-ir cells were significantly reduced by about 90% in NPC (−/−) versus NPC (+/+) mouse, and were also mildly decreased in frontal and parietal NPC (+/−) versus NPC (+/+) mouse cortex. This study demonstrates for the first time, reduced number of SP-ir cells in the NPC mouse cortex. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In order to get insight into the striopallidal organization in mammals with little differentiated brain the striatum of the lesser hedgehog tenrec (Afrotheria) was characterized histochemically and analysed with regard to its cortical afferents using axonal tracer substances. The majority of neocortical cells projecting to the striatum were found bilaterally in the layers 2 and 3 of the frontal hemisphere; caudalwards the relative number of cells increased somewhat in the upper layer 5. There was a topographical organization as far as the allocortical projections appeared confined to the ventral striatum, and the efferents from hippocampal, posterior paleocortical, somatosensory and audiovisual areas were distributed in largely different striatal territories. Projections from the anterior frontal cortex, on the other hand, terminated extensively upon the caudate–putamen and also involved the nucleus accumbens and the olfactory tubercle. In the latter region the molecular layer was especially involved. The entorhinal cortex also projected heavily to the olfactory tubercle but unlike other species it scarcely involved the nucleus accumbens. The cortical fibers were distributed in a relatively homogenous fashion within their striatal territory and there was little evidence for patches of high density terminations. Islands of low density labeling, however, were noted occasionally in the caudate–putamen. These islands were partly similar in size as the patches of neuropil staining obtained with anti-calretinin and anti-substance P. There were also hints for the presence of a shell-like region in the nucleus accumbens stained with anti-dopamine transporter and NADPh–diaphorase. The classical striosome-matrix markers such as calbindin, acetylcholinesterase and enkephalin, however, failed to reveal any compartmental organization. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Brain 5-HT2A receptors have been implicated in various behavioural and physiological processes including hippocampus-dependent learning and memory. To clarify the cellular localization and chemical identity of 5-HT2A receptor-immunoreactive (-ir) neurons in the rat septal complex and dorsal hippocampus, an immunofluorescence histochemical study was performed using a monoclonal antibody to the 5-HT2A receptor. Pretreatment with colchicine increased the number of 5-HT2A receptor-ir cell bodies, indicating that the 5-HT2A receptor protein undergoes microtubule-dependent anterograde transport in axons and dendrites. 5-HT2A receptor immunoreactivity was detected in septal cholinergic neurons, identified with an antiserum to the vesicular acetylcholine transporter (VAChT), and in GABAergic cell bodies in the medial septum/diagonal band of Broca, identified with antisera to glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD) and the calcium-binding protein parvalbumin. In the dorsal hippocampus, 5-HT2A receptor immunoreactivity was demonstrated in cells located in the pyramidal cell layer (CA1–3) throughout the Ammon''s horn and in the granular cell layer of the dentate gyrus. Furthermore, 5-HT2A receptor immunoreactivity was present in most hippocampal interneurons identified by the presence of GAD65, parvalbumin, calbindin D-28k, somatostatin and neuropeptide Y. In contrast, 5-HT2A receptor immunoreactivity was present in only a few interneurons containing cholecystokinin and calretinin immunoreactivity. The results suggest that serotonin acting on 5-HT2A receptors can modulate hippocampal functions via direct actions on hippocampal glutamatergic principal cells and indirectly via actions on hippocampal interneurons with different phenotypes as well as GABAergic and cholinergic septohippocampal neurons. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The endopiriform nucleus, further divided into dorsal and ventral parts, and the neighbouring pre-endopiriform (pEn) nucleus form a region of highly heterogeneous structure involved in numerous physiological and pathological processes. Nonpyramidal neurons of this region containing three neuropeptides—somatostatin (SOM), neuropeptide Y (NPY), and vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP)—were examined in this study. Their colocalization with three calcium-binding proteins—parvalbumin (PV), calbindin D28k (CB), calretinin (CR), and with nitric oxide synthase (NOS), was investigated by qualitative and quantitative methods. The results are summarized as follows: (1) all studied substances are distributed in neurons of the entire region, (2) SOM-ir neurons constitute the most numerous neuropeptide-containing population, whereas NOS-ir neurons make up the largest population of all studied, (3) colocalizations are found in the endopiriform region (Enr) (SOM with CB, PV and NOS; VIP with CR; NPY with NOS and NOS with CR), (4) heterogeneity of the endopiriform region appears in the differences of cells'' shape distributions of single-labeled (SOM-, CR-PV-ir) and double-labeled (SOM/CB-, SOM/PV-, NPY/NOS- and NOS/CR-ir) neurons, as well as in differentiated percentage values of SOM/NOS, NPY/NOS and VIP/CR double-labeled neurons in three studied parts; additionally, differences in distribution of immunoreactive neuropil elements between parts of the region are observed. Numerous regional differences concerning neuronal morphology and immunocytochemical characteristics justify further division of the endopiriform region into distinguished parts. Some immunocytochemical features of the neurons in studied region may contribute to the role in epileptogenesis. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Ghrelin is a 28-amino acid peptide hormone secreted from the stomach that acts as a gut–brain peptide with potent stimulatory effects on food intake. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of peripheral ghrelin (1 and 10 nmol/rat) injected intraperitoneally (i.p.) on food intake and neuronal activity in the hypothalamus and brain stem, as assessed by c-Fos-like-immunoreactivity (c-FLI), using a confocal laser scanning microscope (cLSM) as a sensitive microscopic technique to detect c-FLI-positive neurons. Cumulative food intake was significantly increased 5.3- and 3.7-fold for the 4-h period after i.p. injection of ghrelin at both doses. The number of c-FLI-positive neurons in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus (PVN) was significantly increased after peripheral administration of ghrelin (1 nmol i.p.; median: 41.8) compared with i.p. saline (median: 17.5). As described before, c-fos expression was increased in the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus (ARC). In the nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS) or the area postrema (AP), there was no significant change in the density of c-FLI-positive neurons. Our data suggest that an activation of the arcuate–paraventricular axis may be part of the brain circuits involved in the orexigenic effect of peripheral ghrelin. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The present study investigated the effect of neuropeptide Y on nociception in the nucleus accumbens of rats. Intra-nucleus accumbens administration of neuropeptide Y induced dose-dependent increases in the hindpaw withdrawal latency (HWL) to thermal and mechanical stimulation in rats. There were no significant changes in the HWL to both stimulation during 60 min after the administration of NPY to outside of the nucleus accumbens. The anti-nociceptive effect of NPY was blocked by subsequent intra-nucleus accumbens injection of the Y1 receptor antagonist neuropeptide Y 28–36, indicating that Y1 receptor is involved in the neuropeptide Y-induced anti-nociception in the nucleus accumbens. Furthermore, the anti-nociceptive effect of neuropeptide Y was attenuated by intra-nucleus accumbens administration of the opioid antagonist naloxone, suggesting an involvement of the endogenous opioid system in the neuropeptide Y-induced anti-nociception in the nucleus accumbens of rats. Moreover, the neuropeptide Y-induced anti-nociception was attenuated by following intra-nucleus accumbens injection of the selective opioid antagonists nor-binaltorphimine and β-funaltrexamine, but not by naltrindole, illustrating that μ- and κ-opioid receptors, not the δ-opioid receptor, were involved in the neuropeptide Y-induced anti-nociception in the nucleus accumbens of rats. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]