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The article presents the author's response to the comments made on his paper "A.F. Leach on the Reformation." According to the author, his own approach was that of one interested in sixteenth and seventeenth century schooling who found that Leach's interpretation of events at the Reformation did not tally with the later evidence. This led to a detailed examination of the case argued in English Schools at the Reformation; then, since this case depended directly on a reading of earlier ecclesiastical and educational history, it was necessary to look further back. According to the author, it was the main object of his paper to suggest a reassessment of developments at the Reformation, in the interests of clarifying the course of educational history. According to the author, he suggested that there was a prima facie case for questioning Leach's assessment of the Chantries Act because it is at variance with the general views of medieval historians and with the later evidence, dealing mainly with the latter.

This article reports that the story of how the state first involved itself in English primary education has long been a familiar part of the historical canon. It is informed that in 1833, the first reformed Parliament met. Flushed with the spirit of reform, the Radicals came forward with an agenda of measures to implement. One such measure was national education. Henry Brougham, a politician, had gained the reputation, since 1816, of being the most vigorous supporter of national education in the Commons. Although educationists took his accession to office in November 1830 as a sign that the Reform Ministry planned some measure in this area, it failed to bring any forward. The issue, however, was early on the agenda of the reformed Parliament of 1833. It is also reported that Brougham, as a minister, did not introduce the education bill which was expected of him, a bill similar to his measure of 1820. His own education committee had shown then that although voluntary contributions provided for considerable schooling, they were insufficient to supply all the required schools.

The article presents information on the schools of the Royal Academy. There is no attempt here to deal with events preceding the founding of the Academy in 1768. The original request of November 28, 1768, made by twenty-two artists to King of Great Britain George III was for an academy with two principal objects: the establishing of a well-regulated School of Academy of Design for the use of students in the Arts, and an Annual Exhibition, open to all artists of distinguished merit, where they may offer their performances to public inspection. George III gladly took on this patronage and from that point, inevitably, there were two forces in Academy activities, the public one of annual exhibitions and the private one of routine meetings and the running of the Schools. Much of the subsequent development was thus fixed at the outset. Royal patronage occasioned Court patronage and the inevitable accent on portraiture. Successive Presidents and Professors followed his thinking, and the student-training side of the Academy was never allowed to be forgotten. But this was not the public face, and it was to the public face that many of the subsequent criticisms were directed.

The article presents information about the role of secondary modern schools in fiction. Although schools and educators have appeared in fiction with increasing frequency since the nineteenth century, coinciding with the expansion of education and the growth of the reading public, their treatment in most novels, until the post-war period, has been too limited to justify close attention as educational comment. In the early part of the nineteenth century, the teacher was a neglected figure in fiction; his lowly status failed to qualify him for inclusion in novels about fashionable society, or his appearance was limited to the superficial treatment given to a large gallery of minor figures, more popular as the material of fiction than the study of a single portrait. Since the Second World War, however there has been the emergence of different kinds of school fiction. In this period, the day school has replaced the public school as a setting and the teacher has been treated in a more serious way. Significantly, there are marked differences between the grammar school and secondary modern school novels, differences which reflect their respective places in the educational system.

This article presents information on the utility of adopting some of the concepts of the sociologist in looking at the historical development of education. This has mainly been done with reference to the Mechanics Institutes movement, but could equally fruitfully have been applied to such areas as the development of female education, the growth of the Public Schools, or movement by religious bodies to build elementary schools. In the present unsatisfactory state of the teaching of the History of Education in Colleges of Education, and the attention now being given to revision of syllabus and method, explorations in the use of the tools of the sociologist would seem timely. It is proposed to explore their usefulness in relation to the formation and development of Mechanics Institutes. The authors examined the attitudes towards popular education generally and the Institutes in particular. Examined in relation to the working man, it is necessary first to establish motive. This perception was related to the break-up of established community patterns that had existed in the eighteenth century, and increased mobility in job structure, which, while it could lead to unemployment and job superfluity in some trades, also made it possible for a man to think in terms of promotion or change of skill. With the possibilities of promotion and frustration in achieving this, the working man could look for institutions which promised positive advantages in achieving upward mobility.

The article presents a list of books related to the histories of schools in England and Wales. Some of the books listed are "Schools of the Edmonton Hundred," by George William Sturgess; "Middlesex and Hertfordshire Notes and Queries," edited by William John Hardy; "A Survey of London. . .written in the Year 1598," by John Stow; "The Environs of London. . . ," by Daniel Lysons; "Middlesex," by Richard Michael Robbins.

The article focuses on the short career of Seymour Tremenheere as an inspector of schools, that illustrates the emergence of such restraints and controls and the growing pains of a new race of Civil Servant. Tremenheere was heir to a long tradition of public service on both sides of the family. Tremenheere was duly appointed "Her Majesty's Inspector of Schools" by Order-in-Council as notified in the London Gazette, December 9, 1839. He brushed aside an attempt by certain administrative colleagues to give him verbal instructions. Tremenheere was determined to fashion the work as he saw fit, acting at all times in conjunction with the Secretary. In Tremenheere's view an absolute minimum of dependence upon Executive discretion and control was essential to the school inspector. In 1843, along with other inspectors, he received a yard square form requiring detailed information about his work. He simply indicated his current assignment and lined through the rest of the form before returning it. His first assignment was to inspect the proposed site and structure of several school houses in Monmouth and Hereford, whose sponsors had applied for government grant-in-aid.

This article profiles A.F. Leach, Assistant Commissioner of education in England. When, in 1886, the Charity Commissioners deputed Leach, to inquire into the school at Southwell Minster, a chain reaction was set up which, in Leach's estimation, led to a revolution in the history of English schools. By far the greater number of those who have referred to Leach's work have accepted or rested on it. Yet it has not been incorporated into the general history of the Middle Ages. Leach worked over this de novo, and in 1896 published his book "English Schools at the Reformation," in which he showed that the attribution of fifty-one "new" foundations to King Edward VI's reign is a misreading of history. In this book he printed the surviving records of the Chantry Commissioners, the most important source for the general history of English schools. As a result of these books, Leach was chosen to write or edit most of the chapters on schools in the Victoria County Histories then appearing. In 1911 he printed, in Educational Charters and Documents, a collection of original sources, in the introduction to which he summarized his views.

This article presents information on scholar Foster Watson and his contribution to the field of education. He was admitted from Lincoln Grammar School to read an honors degree in English at Owens College, Manchester, England in 1878. There he moved into the orbit of scholar A.W. Ward, and in one sense he never moved out of it. For Ward, as the Professor of History and English Language and Literature, was building up the Manchester History School by a prodigious output of published work, followed, on his departure from Manchester, by fostering and fathering those great co-operative histories--the Cambridge Modern History, the Cambridge History of English Literature and the Cambridge History of British Foreign Policy. Twenty years later Watson himself was to contribute to the second of these. When Foster Watson became vice-master of the Central Foundation School in Cowper Street, England in 1885, he was brought into immediate contact with the Finsbury Training College, because it used rooms there.

The article focuses on a study which tries to outline the basic essentials of the sociometric method in English schools. Group methods of teaching, group dynamics, and group therapy have all made their impact, and therefore it is not surprising that a considerable volume of empirical research has been devoted to the origin and development of groups among schoolchildren and to the factors which bear upon this process. Sociometric methods yield a picture of the group structure in a population, with reference to specific criteria, and also a measure of status relative to the same criteria. It has been repeatedly shown that there is considerable overlap between results based on different criteria so that there is no great logical leap from findings relative to specific broad criteria to inferences about the general group structure of populations. Statistical and other properties of sociometry require further investigation, especially as non-parametric methods develop. The relation of sociometric choices inside with those outside test populations also demand more study; my own interim results suggest that this may constitute a valuable approach to the understanding of groups within a formal unit such as a school class.

This article presents information on the developments in the scientific and technical subjects in the curriculum of English in secondary schools at the turn of the century in Great Britain. The development of English secondary education in the early part of this century can be strongly contrasted with the liberal outlook of the Bryce Commission R.F. Young. He has criticized Regulations for Secondary Schools because they did not accord with their outlook, and neglected the vocational aspects of secondary education. The records of the Department of Science and Art provide most important information on the extent of scientific and technical education in the second and third grade schools. A secondary school wishing to earn grants from the Department could arrange to do so in two ways: it could introduce science classes in several subjects without interfering very much with the general school programme; alternatively, the syllabus for the whole or part of the school could be organized according to the detailed regulations for a school of science, sometimes referred to as an organized science school.

This article focuses on the contributions of philosopher and educator Michael Sadler in the field of German studies, considering some of his literary works and biographical sources. As an enterprising undergraduate, Sadler went to Heidelberg, Germany, to learn German while teaching classics in an English boys' school. In I 884 he made the acquaintance of Joseph Wright, then assistant master on the staff of Neuenheim College in Heidelberg. In the decade before the outbreak of the first world war it is difficult not to become swamped by the multiplicity of references that Sadler made to German experience on all manner of occasions. Three pieces of work only are selected for mention, as being outstanding studies: in 1908, "Continuation Schools in England and Elsewhere" was published; in 1910 a trenchant historical analysis comparing German and English educational development in the nineteenth century was included in the volume of "Germany in the Nineteenth Century"; and in May 1912 Sadler lectured on "England's Debt to German Education in Frankfurt-am-Main," a strikingly informed address of which a reprint exists. During the 1930s Sadler did a good deal of book reviewing and there are some notable commentaries on writings like Leonard Woolf's "The Intelligent Man's Way to Prevent War" and Vernon Bartlett's "Nazi Germany Explained."

The article focuses on the influence of public schools in the nineteenth century. Any school influences a community both directly and indirectly. The effect is much greater for boarding than for day schools and was particularly interesting in the nineteenth century when the prosperity of schools varied so much. Normally one looks at schools purely from the point of view of the pupils and is apt to forget that they are sources of wealth and can be considered an asset on the same footing as an industrial concern. Their prosperity or decline is a matter of vital interest to both traders and pupils. A school full to capacity is a successful one, while any headmaster unfortunate enough to witness a decline in numbers is written off as a failure. In the nineteenth century a large boarding school in a small town dominated local affairs. Not only could it choke or enlighten the local community both culturally and industrially, but it could alter the whole aspect of town life in every phase, encouraging some projects and condemning others.

The article presents information about group dynamics and schools in Great Britain. The quality of a school can be assessed in various ways. The real character of a school community can be observed in the day to day contacts between the individuals and small groups of which it is constructed. The normal behavior of teachers towards their classes and of pupils towards one another is of more importance in a child's life than the brief excitement of a public occasion when pupils and teachers are on show together. A school community can be regarded as a social hierarchy cut through at various levels by networks of seemingly horizontal relationships. Every individual in a community should feel necessary but not indispensable to the groups of which he is a member, as these groups should be necessary but not indispensable to him. When a functional group loses one of its members, those who remain are at first conscious only of the gap he leaves. But, imperceptibly, the group structure changes, not simply to make room for the new member who must replace him, but to meet an altered situation.

This article presents a list of books related to education. Some of the books are: "An Introduction to Vectors," by A.E. Coulson; "Psychology and the Visual Arts," edited by J. Hogg; "The Challenge to Education," by G. Pickering; "Reviews of National Policies for Education: Sweden,"; "Scottish Educational Studies," edited by W. Kenneth Richmond; and "English Progressive Schools," by R. Skidelsky.