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Soils have the potential to sequester and store significant amounts of carbon, contributing towards climate change mitigation. Soil carbon markets are emerging to pay farmers for management changes that absorb atmospheric carbon, governed by codes that ensure eligibility, additionality and permanence whilst protecting against leakage and reversals. This paper presents the first global comparative analysis of farmland soil carbon codes, providing new insights into the range of approaches governing this global marketplace. To do this, the paper developed an analytical framework for the systematic comparison of codes which was used to identify commonalities and differences in approaches, methods, administration, commercialisation and operations for 12 publicly available codes from around the world. Codes used a range of mechanisms to manage additionality, uncertainty and risks, baselines, measurement, reporting and verification, auditing, resale of carbon units, bundling and stacking, stakeholder engagement and market integrity. The paper concludes by discussing existing approaches and codes that could be adapted for use in the UK and evaluates the need for an over-arching standard for soil carbon codes in the UK and internationally, to which existing codes and other schemes already generating soil carbon credits could be assessed and benchmarked. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cement is one of the highest energy-consuming and emission generating industries around the world. To reduce greenhouse emissions, several mitigation measures have been proposed, and their effectiveness is estimated. However, estimates of the global temperature change potential of the cement industry have seldom been performed. Hence, in this study, we propose a new framework that estimates CO2 emissions and other seven pollutants to estimate temperature change potential from the cement industry. The underlying framework uses system dynamics, where the effectiveness of four mitigation measures, i.e., a shift in demand, newer methodologies to produce clinker, use of energy efficiency improvements, and implementation of renewable energy, are explored. The results indicate that renewable sources of energy show highest mitigation potential. The cement industry has contributed to an increase in 2 mK temperature since 1990, which is likely to grow up to 14.8 mK by 2050 if no mitigation measures are applied. Energy efficiency improvements by extensions of perform achieve and trade scheme can reduce 0.33 mK from the Indian cement industry. This paper provides a unique opportunity for estimating temperature influence of the cement industry, which can be further implemented for other countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In order to engage in carbon management at the household level, individuals need to understand how their everyday activities contribute to greenhouse gas emissions, and how they can reduce their personal carbon footprint. This implies a need for ‘carbon literacy’, a term that has emerged in the literature in the last few years without being formally defined. This paper proposes a definition of carbon literacy and compares this with other, related concepts. Next the results of two qualitative studies are presented that reveal how three mechanisms help to increase carbon literacy: energy monitoring; carbon footprint statements; and peer/social learning through sharing information, skills and resources with others. The different aspects of carbon literacy that these mechanisms contribute to are highlighted. Especially notable is the significance of carbon footprint statements, which enable understanding of the relative emissions associated with different activities, and the value many interviewees placed on learning within a group. These two mechanisms enhance the impact of energy monitoring by individuals, which is part of the focus of schemes such as the introduction of ‘smart’ energy meters in several countries. The implications of these findings for policymakers and others who wish to promote carbon literacy are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper considers the effects of the Camp for Climate Action, or “Climate Camp,” on climate change mitigation and public discourse in the UK on climate change, drawing on participants' views and media coverage in addition to academic sources. Climate Camp was an activist movement best known for summer protest camps in the UK in 2006–2010, which targeted high-profile sources of greenhouse gas emissions, including Heathrow airport and Drax power station; engaged in radical, anti-capitalist critique of climate change; and demonstrated sustainable living. The ongoing effects of Climate Camp on climate change mitigation are analyzed, including specific campaigns, public discourse and mobilization of activists. The paper finds that while specific campaigns were successful and Climate Camp has contributed to a renewal of environmental activism and mobilization of “bystanders,” the movement has (so far) failed to shift public discourse on climate change, let alone effect the deep systemic change it deemed necessary to mitigate climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Background: Since many governments lack the motivation to lead deep emission reduction initiatives, the climate action movement must strengthen its campaigns. Method and results: This paper offers strategies for the movement derived from historical analysis of mechanisms that achieved effective social change in the past. Common elements of climate action with past social change movements, together with some differences, are identified. Conclusion: Although technologies, strategies and tactics vary, climate action groups can agree to support a shared common goal: effective climate mitigation, that can be accomplished not only through outward-oriented tactics, but also by forms of climate activism that are prefigurative – that is, based on action within local communities. Furthermore, the diverse campaigns that take place on a variety of scales and spaces, conducted by heterogeneous groups, should be integrated by establishing national and international hubs to facilitate coordination and communication. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Soil amendments are a broad class of materials that enhance physical, chemical or biological characteristics in croplands, pastures, or rangelands. While organic soil amendments such as manure, mulch and seaweed have well established agronomic benefits, there has been renewed private and governmental interest in quantifying and incentivizing their role in mitigating climate change. Likewise, biostimulants and biopesticides, which are intended to target specific plant or microbial processes, are emerging with claims of improved soil health, crop yields, soil organic carbon sequestration, and greenhouse gas emission reductions. We conducted a literature review to address the climate mitigation potential of organic soil amendments, including biostimulants and biopesticides. In doing so, we identify three elements of climate mitigation through the use of soil amendments: soil organic carbon sequestration, soil greenhouse gas emission reductions, and life cycle emission reductions. We review common soil amendment classes in detail, addressing the empirical evidence (or lack thereof) in which they meet these three elements of climate mitigation. We conclude by suggesting priorities for government and private investment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The livestock sector in low- and middle-income countries could contribute significantly to reduce the rate of growth and/or the level of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions required to achieve the 1.5 °C target of the Paris Agreement. Yet, the sector is also expected to contribute to food and income security in these countries. Using an extensive dataset on the Ethiopian livestock sector, we assessed the potential of selected interventions to increase supply of animal source protein (ASP) and reduce GHG emissions intensity or absolute emissions at national level. The business as usual (BAU) scenario was modelled by extrapolating the historical trends observed during the base years (i.e. 2010 – 2020) to the period between 2021 and 2030. Four scenarios were modelled including structural changes in cattle herd (S1) and chicken flock (S3) composition, increased milk yields of dairy cattle (S2), and a combination of all strategies (S4). We found that the total ASP produced and supplied per capita, as well as total GHG emissions increased between 2021 and 2030 across all scenarios while emission intensities per unit ASP produced decreased. However, by 2030, the total GHG emissions in S1 (i.e. 146.7 MtCO2e) were lower than in the BAU scenario (i.e. 149.0 MtCO2e) while the total ASP supplied per capita was higher in the former (i.e. 6.84 kg) than the latter (i.e. 6.24 kg). These findings suggest that structural changes at herd level could reduce total GHG emissions and concomitantly increase ASP supply. Therefore, structural transformation could be a highly relevant policy option for low- and middle- income countries, where the livestock sector must address multiple goals including food and income security, and global climate commitments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Almost two decades since the Kyoto Protocol was adopted, global greenhouse gas emissions are still rising rapidly. We argue that the global climate policy focus on carbon markets has played a significant role in the failure to reduce emissions. There are 16 compliance carbon markets in operation across the world. Many more are planned, although there have been numerous problems with carbon trading, including ineffectiveness, weak regulation and implementation, instances of fraud, little to no emissions reduction and major legitimacy issues for governments and the private sector. In this paper we take a “strong” position, arguing that carbon markets do not have a role to play in a policy scenario that requires radical emissions reductions in order to avoid dangerous greenhouse gas concentrations. We put forward 10 reasons why carbon markets should not be the preferred climate policy choice, which we have collated from positions taken by grassroots social movement organizations, think tanks, NGOs and other political advocacy groups as well as individual scientists and scholars. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Renewable energies are advancing across many fronts – and now a new front has opened up in the form of dispatchable concentrating solar power (CSP). It is in emerging markets such as China, India and countries in North Africa and the Middle East as well as South America and southern Africa that CSP power plants with 24/7 dispatchable power are starting to be viewed as a viable way forward. The emerging CSP industrial value chain in China, India, southern Africa and elsewhere is expected to exert its consequent dramatic impact on cost reductions, which will in turn drive the diffusion of CSP around the world as a key challenger and alternative to nuclear and fossil fuel power. In this paper, we review these developments and discuss the effects attributable to the emerging learning curve, combined with technology progress involving molten salt heat transfer and reductions in water requirements, as well as patenting trends in the global CSP industry. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This paper reviews the literature on urban carbon governance, which has become a burgeoning area of research. Since the early 1990s, the field has grown and diversified geographically, theoretically and methodologically, and now encompasses a wide range of topics, including governing techniques, limitations and challenges, central-local relations, municipal networks, network governance and grassroots initiatives. Given the increasingly global nature of low-carbon urbanism and governance, these studies have expanded our knowledge on the complexity and plurality of the role of cities in addressing climate change. This review serves as a consolidated guide for researchers, policymakers and students in this field. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

As the loss of forests over time results in a net flux of carbon (C) into the atmosphere, the practice of agroforestry can combat this and serve as a long-term sink for CO2. Based on the inventory of 93 homegarden agroforestry systems (AFS) in three study sites and using a non-destructive method involving allometric equations, the research assessed aboveground (AG) and belowground (BG) biomass and biomass C stocks across sites and along age groups in homegarden AFS in southern and southwestern Ethiopia. Plant diversity parameters were also gathered on perennial plant species. Results indicate that the mean perennial plant species richness per homegarden agroforestry, and other diversity parameters varied strongly among sites (p < 0.05). Biomass C stocks range from 18.11 at Malo Ezo to 32.86 Mg C ha−1 at Saja Laften for AG, 3.97 to 7.10 Mg C ha−1 for BG, and 22.02 to 39.96 Mg C ha−1, for each respective sites, for the overall biomass C stocks were recorded within the homegarden agroforestry systems. In terms of age groups, the mean total biomass C stock did show numerical change from the initial, ≤10 years (22.49 Mg C ha−1) to the middle age group, >10 and ≤20 years (39.96 Mg C ha−1), but it was stagnant 20 years onward (28.49 Mg C ha−1). The homegarden agroforestry systems had the potential to store up to 80.81–112.30 Mg·ha−1 of CO2 equivalents across sites, and 82.53–104.55 Mg·ha−1 of CO2 equivalents along age groups. A positive relationship was noted between AG woody biomass C stocks and attributes such as woody species richness, and woody plant density. Considering the involvement of large numbers of homegardeners, future improvements and expansion of homegarden agroforestry to larger areas can enhance to a great extent the potential to sequester C and thereby mitigate climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A global warming potential of albedo (GWPA) is proposed, that represents the carbon dioxide emissions equivalent to a 0.01 increase in albedo over 1 m2 of horizontal surface. A survey of prior literature suggests GWPA ≈ −4.2 kgCO2/m2. Taking Los Angeles, CA as a test site for urban global warming mitigation actions, a residential "cool roof" project offers approximately seven times as much radiative forcing benefit from albedo change as from GHG reduction of energy efficiency; and a citywide increase to commercial building roof albedo offers radiative forcing benefit equivalent to the first 6½ years of all commercial sector GHG emission reductions proposed in the City of Los Angeles climate action plan. Discussion explores pathways and challenges to making albedo increases fungible with GHG reductions in GHG markets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cement is one of the highest energy-consuming and emission generating industries around the world. To reduce greenhouse emissions, several mitigation measures have been proposed, and their effectiveness is estimated. However, estimates of the global temperature change potential of the cement industry have seldom been performed. Hence, in this study, we propose a new framework that estimates CO2 emissions and other seven pollutants to estimate temperature change potential from the cement industry. The underlying framework uses system dynamics, where the effectiveness of four mitigation measures, i.e., a shift in demand, newer methodologies to produce clinker, use of energy efficiency improvements, and implementation of renewable energy, are explored. The results indicate that renewable sources of energy show highest mitigation potential. The cement industry has contributed to an increase in 2 mK temperature since 1990, which is likely to grow up to 14.8 mK by 2050 if no mitigation measures are applied. Energy efficiency improvements by extensions of perform achieve and trade scheme can reduce 0.33 mK from the Indian cement industry. This paper provides a unique opportunity for estimating temperature influence of the cement industry, which can be further implemented for other countries.

Though livestock are one of the major contributors to climate change through emission of greenhouse gases (GHG), the intensity of emission and the mitigation potential from this sector is not clearly known in the study regions. Therefore, the present study was designed to estimate the emission of GHGs from the livestock sector over the time period (2003/04–2017/18) and evaluate the mitigation potential using the global livestock environment assessment model (GLEAM). Both primary and secondary data sources were used to obtain data on livestock population, herd parameters, feeding practices, and manure management. The study revealed an increasing trend of GHG from 2003/04 to 2017/18, where the annual emission increased with an average 3.8 Mt carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2-eq) for all species and 3.3 Mt CO2-eq for cattle alone at national level. Though there is some variation between regions, methane (CH4) was the major gas emitted from ruminant production followed by nitrous oxide (N2O), however the emission of N2O was higher (> 70%) in poultry production. The emission intensity from chicken egg and meat, 1.8–3.3 and 2.2–7.2 kg CO2-eq/kg of product, respectively, was much lower than the emission intensity of meat from small ruminants (16.4–51.5 kg CO2-eq/kg of product) and cattle (34.2–148.2 kg CO2-eq/kg of product). Implementing the integrated mitigation approach has much pronounced reduction effect on GHG emissions as well as increasing the productivity of the livestock sector. Unless mitigation measures are taken, the sector's emission will increase over time. Thus, federal and regional governments, and partner organizations working in the sector need to give more attention and implement the initiatives identified in the Climate Resilient Green Economy (CRGE) strategy and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) recommendations to mitigate GHG emissions from the livestock sector. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In order to engage in carbon management at the household level, individuals need to understand how their everyday activities contribute to greenhouse gas emissions, and how they can reduce their personal carbon footprint. This implies a need for ‘carbon literacy’, a term that has emerged in the literature in the last few years without being formally defined. This paper proposes a definition of carbon literacy and compares this with other, related concepts. Next the results of two qualitative studies are presented that reveal how three mechanisms help to increase carbon literacy: energy monitoring; carbon footprint statements; and peer/social learning through sharing information, skills and resources with others. The different aspects of carbon literacy that these mechanisms contribute to are highlighted. Especially notable is the significance of carbon footprint statements, which enable understanding of the relative emissions associated with different activities, and the value many interviewees placed on learning within a group. These two mechanisms enhance the impact of energy monitoring by individuals, which is part of the focus of schemes such as the introduction of ‘smart’ energy meters in several countries. The implications of these findings for policymakers and others who wish to promote carbon literacy are discussed.

The objective of this study is to quantify the contribution of the German forestry to climate change mitigation and to calculate the associated costs at the national level. For that, the forest and harvested wood products carbon pools are considered as well as energy and material substitution. We compare five different scenarios, each referring to an alternative level of timber harvests (due to changing rotation lengths or setting aside of forest areas). The study shows that enhancing the use of wood products at the expense of other materials, such as steel, plastic or concrete, can have a substantial impact on the overall carbon balance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Paris Agreement calls on all nations to pursue efforts to contribute to limiting the global temperature increase to 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels. However, due to limited global, regional and country-specific analysis of highly ambitious GHG mitigation pathways, there is currently a lack of knowledge about the transformational changes needed in the coming decades to reach this target. Through a meta-analysis of mitigation scenarios for Germany, this article aims to contribute to an improved understanding of the changes needed in the energy system of an industrialized country. Differentiation among six key long-term energy system decarbonization strategies is suggested, and an analysis is presented of how these strategies will be pursued until 2050 in selected technologically detailed energy scenarios for Germany. The findings show, that certain strategies, including the widespread use of electricity-derived synthetic fuels in end-use sectors as well as behavioral changes, are typically applied to a greater extent in mitigation scenarios aiming at high GHG emission reductions compared to more moderate mitigation scenarios. The analysis also highlights that the pace of historical changes observed in Germany between 2000 and 2015 is clearly insufficient to adequately contribute to not only the 1.5 °C target, but also the 2 °C long-term global target. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Shrublands play an important role in the reduction of atmospheric CO2and contribute to the mitigation of the effects of climate change, due to their ability to act as carbon sinks and the large expanses of land involved. Two of the most representative shrub species in the Iberian Peninsula,Cistus ladaniferL. andErica arboreaL., were studied in terms of biomass distribution and carbon and nitrogen contents in the different fractions. With a view to fast and cost-effective estimation of radical biomass, a new procedure for easy root-to-shoot calculation based on vibrational data was proposed, resulting in an excellent agreement with the values obtained from conventional direct belowground and aerial biomass measurements: 0.23 for C. ladanifer and 0.54 for E. arborea. Carbon sequestration, estimated at 45 and 73 t CO2eq·ha−1forC. ladaniferandE. arborea, respectively, was subsequently determined. Since these values are substantially higher than those of other shrubs, these two key species can be deemed particularly promising for ecological restoration and carbon offsetting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The transition to a low-carbon society is imperative to climate change mitigation and requires cross-sectoral action at multiple levels. A growing literature emphasizes local action, but less is written about scaling up action at a county level. Combining three analytical perspectives – transition theory, strategic niche management and the middle-out – we examine the evolution and scaling up of local community-scale carbon action in Oxfordshire county. Our analysis is based on four local-level research projects. By identifying the roles and strategies of local actors in the development and scaling up of low carbon innovation and action, we conclude that local meso-level actors are crucial for catalyzing initial stages of county-level transitions, but limited in their capacity to scale up low-carbon innovation. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

One hundred percent renewable energy systems have the potential to mitigate climate change, but large fluctuations in energy supply and demand make ensuring reliability a key challenge. A hypothetical future energy system developed for the UK features reduced total energy demand, increased electrification and 100% renewable and carbon-neutral energy sources. Hourly modelling of this system over a 10-year period shows that even in an integrated energy system there will be significant electricity surpluses and shortfalls. Flexible demand and conventional electricity and heat stores reduced the extremes but could not provide the capacity required. Carbon-neutral synthetic gaseous fuel could provide a flexible and quickly dispatchable back up system, with large storage and generation capacities comparable with those in the UK today. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To radically address the problem of climate change, it is not enough to modify specific attitudes and behaviors while upholding the present paradigms. This article aims to show why modifications will never bring about radical carbon emission reductions. We discuss what it implies to desire radical change, using contemporary philosophy as a method. We argue that a key requirement to achieve radical emission reductions is that we as human beings adopt responsibility that brings with it a continuous commitment to the process of change. Acting on the new understanding of responsibility as an internal mindset toward the bringing about of radical change requires a cooperative decision-making model and a new understanding of leadership. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment Rapid Assessment (SCOPE-RAP) workshop was held on 18–22 March 2013. This workshop was hosted by the European Commission, JRC Centre at Ispra, Italy, and brought together 40 leading experts from Africa, Asia, Europe and North and South America to create four synthesis chapters aimed at identifying knowledge gaps, research requirements, and policy innovations. Given the forthcoming publication by CABI of a book volume of the outcomes of the SCOPE-RAP in 2014, this workshop report provides an update on the global societal challenge of soil carbon management and some of the main issues and solutions that were identified in the four working sessions. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Background: We have greater certainty for what has happened in the past than for what will happen in the future. Uncertainty on the impact and value of emissions can be very large. Given all of the elements of uncertainty, we are challenged to set global targets for limiting the environmental impact of emissions, to distribute those targets among the many parties responsible for emissions, to evaluate the trajectories toward targets, to understand the risk involved in not meeting targets, to motivate the collective efforts and burden sharing or trading, and to verify that targets have been achieved. We need a clear and consistent framework for dealing with uncertainty and in this article we use the notion of a risk charge on uncertainty to investigate issues of time in GHG and lifecycle analysis accounting. Results: We address critical issues of short-term storage, time horizons, permanence, trading agreements and model error, and explain the consequences of a risk charge on the associated uncertainties. Conclusions: We demonstrate here how the framework we have built naturally extends to address most types of issues that might arise in placing a value on the uncertainty of GHG emissions, and in quantifying management trade-offs and policy strategies for mitigation and adaptation of climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation plus improving forest-management (REDD+) is a mechanism to facilitate tropical countries' participation in climate change mitigation. In this review we focus on the current state of monitoring systems to support implementing REDD+. The main elements of current monitoring systems – Landsat satellites and traditional forest inventories – will continue to be the backbone of many forest-monitoring systems around the world, but new remote-sensing and analytical approaches are addressing monitoring problems specific to the tropics and implementing REDD+. There is increasing recognition of the utility of combining remote sensing with field data using models that integrate information from many sources, which will continue to evolve as new sensors are deployed and as the availability of field data increases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

By promoting the conservation and restoration of natural ecosystems, policymakers have a unique opportunity to mitigate climate change while providing social and environmental benefits. Here we highlight how nature-based mitigation strategies for multiple benefits can be supported by three key areas of scientific research, drawing upon examples of research by Conservation International and its partners. First, monitoring of ecosystems can quantify the magnitude of emissions released from conversion and degradation, and can inform prioritization and planning efforts. Second, understanding the synergies and tradeoffs between climate change mitigation and other ecosystem benefits can aid in designing policy instruments, selecting management techniques and geographically targeting actions. And third, research on the design of policies, incentives and practices can enhance mitigation initiatives' provision of both climate and noncarbon benefits. Achieving multiple benefits can in turn increase the sustainability of and investment in nature-based mitigation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]