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Emissions of ammonia (NH3), nitrous oxide (N2O) and methane (CH4) from livestock production may be measured for different reasons and in consequence reported in a wide range of units. For the purpose of compiling national inventories of emissions of those gases, emissions from buildings and stores usually need to be expressed per animal or as a proportion of nitrogen (N) (NH3 and N2O) or volatile solids (VS) (CH4) excreted or stored. Much of the published data on gaseous emissions from livestock production is not reported in units that can be readily used for inventory compilation. This paper provides guidance for researchers wishing to convert a wide range of emission units into emission factors (EFs) and opens up opportunities for increased use of published data. We developed our methodology using reported emissions from housing and storage systems compiled from studies for the DATAMAN database so that we could convert reported emissions into agreed EFs referred to as 'required EFs' (RqEFs). Required EFs were either derived using data reported in the associated publication or estimated, using default data (e.g. annual N excretion by a particular type of livestock). The approach greatly increased the number of RqEFs. For example, the number of RqEFs of N2O-N from livestock buildings as a proportion of excreted N increased from 16 to 326, while the number of N2O RqEFs from manure stores as a proportion of stored N increased from 126 to 353. For two subsets of NH3-N emissions from livestock buildings and from slurry stores there were very good correlations between emissions estimated using the methodology we developed and reported emissions (R2 = 0.97 and 0.97, respectively). We include a list of recommended information for inclusion in publications reporting emissions that will enable other workers to utilize this methodology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Russia is the fifth highest emitter of carbon dioxide, having been in the top five for at least six decades. However, thus far no in-depth study has estimated Russia's cumulative emissions in the context of the global 2°C constraint. This is despite the IPCC reiterating the importance of cumulative emissions. Translating the global 2°C temperature commitment into a meaningful national context, this paper derives and evaluates 2°C-compatible carbon budgets for Russia, based on a range of apportionments. The work contributes to the debate by providing a deeper analysis of the principles of allocating carbon emissions to Russia. This analysis demonstrates how, if Russia is to make a fair contribution to global emission reductions in line with 2°C, its 2011–2100 cumulative emissions should stay within 20-26 Gt CO2, commensurate with a 37–52% probability of exceeding 2°C. If Russia continues to emit carbon dioxide at current annual levels, this budget will be “spent” by the mid-2020s. The carbon budget estimated here for Russia appears technically feasible, if extremely challenging. Despite continuing to assert itself as a fossil fuel superpower, Russia has a wealth of opportunities for full and early decarbonization, including the potential to become a net exporter of renewable energy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper assesses the feasibility of reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in Korea to pursue efforts to limit the global temperature increase to 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels, as considered in the Paris Agreement. Economic cost, risk and possibility of climate commitment are examined using different burden-sharing schemes and using a computable general equilibrium model based on assumptions of future socioeconomic conditions. Four scenarios are used for 2050, including a Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) extended scenario and one of almost zero emissions. Then, the simulation results are analyzed under different scenarios, including several policy implications. In order to meet a goal of zero emissions around 2050, the use of fossil fuels for power generation should be replaced with renewable energy sources, such as solar, wind and hydro. The results show that, regardless of the scenario of burden-sharing schemes using the global carbon budget, the Korean economy can bear the marginal cost of a GHG reduction, ranging between USD 100 and 350 in 2050, compared to the NDC extended scenario. It is evident that without a transformative change in the Korean economic structure and energy systems, the cost of reducing GHG emissions will be enormous. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There are a significant number of uncontrolled coal mine fires (primarily due to spontaneous combustion of coal), which are currently burning all over the world. These spontaneous combustion sources emit greenhouse gases (GHGs). A critical review reveals that there are no standard measurement methods to estimate GHG emissions from mine fire/spontaneous combustion areas. The objective of this research paper was to estimate GHGs emissions from spontaneous combustion of coals in the Indian context. A sampling chamber (SC) method was successfully used to assess emissions at two locations of the Enna Opencast Project (OCP), Jharia Coalfield (JCF), for 3 months. The study reveals that measured cumulative average emission rate for CO2varies from 75.02 to 286.03 gs−1m−1and CH4varies from 41.49 to 40.34 gs−1m−1for low- and medium-temperature zones. The total GHG emissions predicted from this single fire affecting mines of JCF vary from 16.86 to 20.19 Mtyr−1. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There has been renewed interest in equating temporary carbon storage with permanent CO2 emission reductions, both within corporate GHG inventories and for carbon offset accounting. Proposed methods discount future emissions, such that carbon stored temporarily can be accounted for as (some fraction of) a permanent reduction in emissions. These approaches are problematic as long-term temperature change is primarily caused by cumulative CO2 emissions and delayed emissions accumulate in the atmosphere the same as any other emission of CO2. This perspective article uses illustrative examples to show how discounting future emissions results in false temperature alignment and net zero claims. We recommend that emissions and removals should be reported without discounting to ensure that GHG accounts accurately reflect contribution to cumulative emissions. There is value in temporarily storing carbon, e.g. it can reduce peak warming and buy time to implement permanent mitigation measures, but it cannot be treated as equivalent to permanent mitigation, and alternative approaches should be used to convey the value of temporary storage. Discounting emissions from temporarily stored carbon creates false alignment claims. Emissions should be reported without discounting. Temporary storage has value but must not be equated with permanent mitigation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The U.S. government is planning significant reductions in greenhouse gas emissions as part of their nationally determined contribution to the Paris Agreement. The plan includes a variety of activities, one of which is enhancing carbon sinks in soils through a climate-smart agriculture program. The nature of soil carbon along with market forces, cultural factors and other issues create challenges for a program in climate-smart agriculture. These challenges include quantification of soil carbon sequestration, targeting practice adoption that is additional to past adoption, and ensuring that emissions of other greenhouse gases do not increase with climate-smart practices. In addition, there are challenges associated with maintaining carbon storage in soils over a long-time horizon; and avoiding increases in greenhouse gas emissions on non-participating lands. We review and discuss options for addressing challenges with direct regulations, subsidies and tax incentives, carbon taxes, and carbon credit offsets. None of these policy interventions are likely to overcome all challenges, but there are ways to limit risks that challenges pose to each intervention. The ability of the U.S. government to limit or mitigate these risks through careful design of a climate-smart agriculture program will largely determine how much carbon is sequestered in soils, and associated contributions to their emissions reduction goal for the Paris Agreement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined the climate-smart agriculture (CSA) practices of dairy farmers in Agula and Maychew, Northern Ethiopia. Data was collected through focus group discussions (FGDs) and questionnaires. The study explored farmers', implementation of three CSA practices – improved fodder, manure management, and replacement of unproductive cows. The determinants of CSA adoption were analyzed using a binary logistics model at significance levels of 1%, 5%, and 10%. Results showed that improved fodder was adopted by 60.1% in Agula and 18.2% in Maychew. The adoption of manure management (p =.229) and replacement of unproductive cows (p =.935) did not vary significantly. The replacement of unproductive cows had the highest adoption rate (45.9%). Improved fodder adoption was significantly higher among male-headed farms (p =.017). Manure management adoption was positively associated with gender (p =.034), number of cows (p =.081), and access to climate information (p =.063). Replacement of unproductive cows was associated with number of cows (p <.001), farm income (p =.049), and access to extension services (p =.006). FGDs revealed that farmers were able to perceive climate change and its effects on their dairy business. This study underscores the need for CSA practices to adapt to climate change impact on animals and mitigate greenhouse gas emissions from dairy farms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The livestock sector in low- and middle-income countries could contribute significantly to reduce the rate of growth and/or the level of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions required to achieve the 1.5 °C target of the Paris Agreement. Yet, the sector is also expected to contribute to food and income security in these countries. Using an extensive dataset on the Ethiopian livestock sector, we assessed the potential of selected interventions to increase supply of animal source protein (ASP) and reduce GHG emissions intensity or absolute emissions at national level. The business as usual (BAU) scenario was modelled by extrapolating the historical trends observed during the base years (i.e. 2010 – 2020) to the period between 2021 and 2030. Four scenarios were modelled including structural changes in cattle herd (S1) and chicken flock (S3) composition, increased milk yields of dairy cattle (S2), and a combination of all strategies (S4). We found that the total ASP produced and supplied per capita, as well as total GHG emissions increased between 2021 and 2030 across all scenarios while emission intensities per unit ASP produced decreased. However, by 2030, the total GHG emissions in S1 (i.e. 146.7 MtCO2e) were lower than in the BAU scenario (i.e. 149.0 MtCO2e) while the total ASP supplied per capita was higher in the former (i.e. 6.84 kg) than the latter (i.e. 6.24 kg). These findings suggest that structural changes at herd level could reduce total GHG emissions and concomitantly increase ASP supply. Therefore, structural transformation could be a highly relevant policy option for low- and middle- income countries, where the livestock sector must address multiple goals including food and income security, and global climate commitments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Almost two decades since the Kyoto Protocol was adopted, global greenhouse gas emissions are still rising rapidly. We argue that the global climate policy focus on carbon markets has played a significant role in the failure to reduce emissions. There are 16 compliance carbon markets in operation across the world. Many more are planned, although there have been numerous problems with carbon trading, including ineffectiveness, weak regulation and implementation, instances of fraud, little to no emissions reduction and major legitimacy issues for governments and the private sector. In this paper we take a “strong” position, arguing that carbon markets do not have a role to play in a policy scenario that requires radical emissions reductions in order to avoid dangerous greenhouse gas concentrations. We put forward 10 reasons why carbon markets should not be the preferred climate policy choice, which we have collated from positions taken by grassroots social movement organizations, think tanks, NGOs and other political advocacy groups as well as individual scientists and scholars. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Countries often lack methods for rapidly, but robustly determining greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation actions and their impacts comprehensively in the land use sector to support commitments to the Paris Agreement. We present rapid assessment methods based on easily available spatial data and adoption costs for mitigation related to crops, livestock and forestry to identify priority locations and actions. Applying the methods for the case of Mexico, we found a national mitigation potential of 87.88 million tons (Mt) CO2eq yr−1, comprising 7.91, 7.66 and 72.31 Mt CO2eq yr−1 from crops, livestock and forestry/agro-forestry, respectively. At the state level, mitigation potentials were highest in Chiapas (13 Mt CO2eq) followed by Campeche (8 Mt CO2eq). Eleven states had a land use mitigation potential between 2.5 to 6.5 Mt CO2eq, while other states had mitigation potentials of less than 2 Mt CO2eq. Mitigation options for crops and livestock could reduce 60% and 6% of the respective emissions. Mitigation options for forestry could reduce emissions by half. If properly implemented, mitigation potentials on cropland can be realized with net benefits, compared to livestock and forestry options, which involve net costs. The method supports science-based priority setting of mitigation actions by location and subsector and should help inform future policy and implementation of countries' nationally determined contributions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As the threat of irreversible climate change has increased over time, the UK has continued to set increasingly ambitious policies to reduce its carbon emission. An assessment of mitigation progress to date at the local authority level clarifies the factors that have affected greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions on the path to carbon neutrality. This research uses regression analyses between local authorities' GHG emission redcutions and selected explanatory variables (including population density, household income, and manufacturing employment) identified from the literature to explore mitigation performance over time, focusing on GHG emissions changes between 2005 and 2016. Substantial and relatively consistent GHG emissions reductions were achieved in this time frame, with average total reductions across UK local authorities of 31.2%. Population density was moderately-to-strongly correlated with the success of transportation GHG emissions mitigation, though this sector has seen the smallest percentage declines over this period. Local authorities with densities below 25 inhabitants per hectare were generally among the poorest performers in transportation GHG mitigation. This underscores the need to support remote working and electrification of personal transportation in areas where public/active transportation options are not viable alternatives. Furthermore, consideration of population density in conjunction with domestic and urban planning will allow for future emissions reductions to occur across the UK. Fundamentally, GHG emissions reductions to date are largely driven by historic factors (density), shifting economic structures (deindustrialisation), and centralised initiatives (decarbonisation of electricity generation). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study presents a method for estimating the mean and variance of total CO2 emission from multiple sources used by a company. The procedure is also readily applicable to estimate these parameters for other greenhouse gases (GHG) inventories and to determine a reliable confidence interval for the total emissions of GHG of a company. Our method represents an improvement over the existing methods that assume independence between emissions from different sources. The foundation of the proposed method is an iterative decomposition process applied to analyze the emissions correlations among activities, raw materials and other inputs used in a company's operations. From these correlations and the individual estimates of means and variances of emission factors, we show how to generate a confidence interval for the total GHG emission of a company. The application of the method is illustrated for a hypothetical manufacturing plant of bicycles and car toys, whose total CO2 emission is estimated within a precise confidence interval. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A global warming potential of albedo (GWPA) is proposed, that represents the carbon dioxide emissions equivalent to a 0.01 increase in albedo over 1 m2 of horizontal surface. A survey of prior literature suggests GWPA ≈ −4.2 kgCO2/m2. Taking Los Angeles, CA as a test site for urban global warming mitigation actions, a residential "cool roof" project offers approximately seven times as much radiative forcing benefit from albedo change as from GHG reduction of energy efficiency; and a citywide increase to commercial building roof albedo offers radiative forcing benefit equivalent to the first 6½ years of all commercial sector GHG emission reductions proposed in the City of Los Angeles climate action plan. Discussion explores pathways and challenges to making albedo increases fungible with GHG reductions in GHG markets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Under the Paris Agreement, Parties must track the implementation and achievement of their nationally determined contributions (NDCs). In many cases, NDC targets are expressed as a greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions level and their implementation and achievement is tracked through national GHG inventories. To achieve their targets, it is thus essential for countries that the effects of mitigation measures are visible in their inventories. Inventory visibility is understood as the degree to which a change in GHG emissions or removals resulting from mitigation actions is reflected in GHG inventories. Inventory visibility can be assessed by identifying which emission sources and gases are affected by a mitigation action, determining the minimum inventory methods required for reflecting the related emission reduction, and identifying the completeness of and methods used by the current GHG inventory. In addition, it is useful to identify potential differences with the quantification approaches used under carbon market mechanisms. Inventory visibility is found to be generally high for measures that reduce CO2 emissions from fossil fuel combustion, while in parts of the industrial processes sector and in the forestry sector there is a higher risk that emission reductions are not visible. An analysis of the portfolio of Clean Development Mechanism projects shows that for most projects this risk is low; only 8% of the carbon credit supply potential is assessed to have a medium risk and 5% is assessed to have a high risk. However, as future carbon market mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement may need to tap more into project types with medium to higher risk of non-visibility, national GHG inventory systems may need to be strengthened to assure visibility of mitigation projects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bangladesh—recently graduated to developing nation category from a least developed country with an emerging economy also is one of the severely affected countries by climate change—is heading towards a coal-intensive electricity generation mix contrary to global decarbonisation efforts. It is facing formidable challenges in achieving universal access to affordable, reliable, and sustainable electricity, decarbonising the energy mix by 2030 to achieve the objective of Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 7, despite a 285% increase of installed capacity between 2008–09 and 2020–21 and aiming at achieving 40 GW and 60 GW by 2030 and 2041 with planned expansions, respectively. This study reviewed Bangladesh's electricity sector developments—demand, generation, transmission, and distribution (T&D)—to identify progress in policies, drivers, and challenges behind the Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions-intensive future direction. The rapid population and economic growth and shift towards industry-based economy drove the exponential growth in energy demand, eventually influencing the rapid generation capacity and T&D infrastructure development. However, Bangladesh has targeted transitioning from natural gas to coal dominating fuel mix due to the lower renewable potential, energy, and food security challenges, because of the anticipated substantial future electricity demand for becoming an Upper Middle and a High-income country by 2031 and 2041, respectively. We also recommended nuclear energy, (renewable) electricity import and floating solar plants to decarbonise the current trajectory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Ethiopia, there is an urge to enhance milk production where urban and peri-urban farms play important role. Therefore, the role of such production system in Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions should be known. This study was conducted with the objective of estimating the carbon footprint (CF) of milk within Mekelle milkshed, Ethiopia. 50 urban and 42 peri-urban dairy farms were selected randomly and both primary and secondary data was collected. Lifecycle Assessment (LCA) approach was employed to quantify GHG emissions using cradle to- farm gate approach. The mean GHG emissions per cattle unit (000 kg CO2-e y-1) were 2.84 ± 1.23 and 3.19 ± 1.99 for peri-urban and urban farms, respectively. The share of enteric fermentation was 75.5% and 73.6% for peri-urban and urban farms, respectively. Milk contributed for 88.5% and 90.8% to the economic value of peri-urban and urban farms, respectively. Overall, the CF of milk production in urban and peri-urban farms was 2.2 kg CO2-e/kg and 3.2 kg CO2-e/kg without economic allocation, and 2.0 kg CO2-e/kg and 2.8 kg CO2-e/kg with economic allocation. In order to reduce GHG emission intensity from dairy farms it is important to adopt climate smart dairy practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wildfires have been an important process affecting forests and rangelands worldwide. In the Mediterranean region, wildfires burn about half a million hectares of forest and scrubland every year. Fuel loads are the main factor controlling fire risk and its propagation. The reduction of fuel loads by grazing could help to decrease the spread and intensity of wildfires in this region. This study aims to assess the contribution of sheep grazing on fuel load management and their role to the mitigation of wildfire greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The methodological approach is based on a simulation of the grazing pressure required to reduce a given quantity of fuel, under the assumption that if it is not consumed, it becomes fuel. Following, a simulation model was designed to estimate the total GHG emissions prevented through grazing, by reducing the risk of fire. These emissions were estimated based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) framework. The accumulated fuels were estimated to be 3126.65 kg dry matter (DM) ha−1 and the biomass potentially consumed by sheep was 1416.03 kg DM ha−1 yr−1, corresponding to 45.29% of accumulated fuel loads. Our findings suggest a value of 3.88 sheep ha−1 day−1 as the ideal to reduce 4833.63 kg CO2eq ha−1 yr−1 of emissions, distributed between CO2 (−2221.76 kg CO2eq ha−1 yr−1; 45.96%), NOx (−1873.41 kg CO2eq ha−1 yr−1; 38.76%), CO (−454.55 kg CO2eq ha−1 yr−1; 9.40%), CH4 (−186.35 kg CO2eq ha−1 yr−1; 3.86%) and N2O (−97.56 kg CO2eq ha−1 yr−1; 2%). The results of this study also underline that livestock can help to mitigate climate change in areas prone to wildfires. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Manual static chamber is one of the most widespread methods for the quantification of greenhouse gases (GHGs) emissions from agricultural systems. But there are concerns about the reliability of measurements and a necessity to assess the static chambers used in the studies performed in the countries of Latin America. Thus, this study aims to investigate the quality of the characteristics from the static chamber methodology, the confidence level of the GHG measurements, and recommend what should be improved. We conducted a systematic review of databases to identify peer-reviewed articles that used the static chamber method in Latin America. A total of 90 articles were analyzed and separated according to the publication year (2000-2008, 2009-2015, 2016-2020). We evaluated eight design and deployment chamber characteristics. The depth of base insertion and type of storage vial received the lowest scores, and the number of samples received the highest score. The description and reporting of the methodological procedures in the studies should be improved. The percentage of articles with high and medium confidence levels increased within the time, and the number of articles with low and very low confidence levels reduced. Scientists/Researchers should continue to follow the protocols, especially the most updated ones. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Crop residue burning is a major issue in farmers' fields of Indo-Gangetic Plain and Central India. It emits air pollutants and GHGs into the atmosphere, adversely affects soil, crop yields, human health and the environment. Weed infestation is also a major problem and affects overall crop yield. Therefore, a 2-year farm experiment was conducted at farmers' fields with three treatments – current farmers' practice (FP), conservation agriculture with improved weed management (CAW) and conservation agriculture without any weed management (CA) – from kharif (monsoon) 2017 to summer 2019 to manage crop residue and weeds. A happy seeder and tractor-operated boom sprayer were also introduced in CA and CAW. Total 51 t of crop residue was generated from 2 ha of rice-wheat-greengram cultivation area. In FP this crop residue was burned, but it was utilized as mulch in CA and CAW, thus, emission of 34,400 kg CO2e was avoided and energy potential of 100.1 × 104 MJ was created. The CAW produced percent higher crop yield of 21, 22.5 and 44.4%in first year and 20.6, 20 and 30% in second year of crop cycle respectively in rice (4.6 & 4.1 t ha−1), wheat (4.9 & 4.1 t ha−1) and greengram (1.3 & 1.3 t ha−1). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous studies have confirmed the agricultural stage as an important contributor to total tea life cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. We therefore focus on the growing and processing of black tea and evaluate the GHG reduction potential of possible agricultural management interventions for tea produced from Unilever's tea estates and factories in Kenya. A baseline GHG footprint was calculated using data collected over four years. Potential interventions to reduce the GHG footprint per kg of black tea focused on key drivers (yield and fertiliser use) of the GHG footprint. These interventions and their effects on production are evidence-based but hypothetical and relate to possible changes in: (1) Harvesting practices; (2) Fertiliser application (timing) and (3) Organic production. Improvements in fertiliser application and harvesting practices could potentially deliver 16% and 9% reduction in GHG emissions, respectively. Under favourable conditions (sourcing fertiliser locally and no yield decline), changing to organic production could theoretically deliver 25% reduction in GHG emissions. However, under less favourable conditions (European sourced fertiliser and 30% yield decline), GHG emissions could increase by 41%. The availability of locally sourced organic fertiliser, sufficient to maintain nitrogen application rates, is seen as the biggest challenge in delivering sustainable organic tea cultivation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines the convergence hypothesis of per capita ecological footprint (PCEF) and per capita carbon footprint (PCCF) for a sample of 77 countries covering the period 1961–2014. In particular, we study whether countries are moving toward a common steady-state equilibrium condition or converging into different groups. To do so, this study used the Phillips and Sul technique. The results do not support the convergence of full sample or similar environmental quality; instead, we find two different steady-state (or club convergence) equilibriums for PCEF and PCCF. Further, our results show that countries which have the lowest PCEF and PCCF are converging (growing) faster than those countries which have the highest PCEF and PCCF. Finally, the speed of convergence of PCEF for club 1 is noted at around 0.126% while for club 2, it is 0.165%. Hence, the climate change policies need to be designed by following the club convergence of the sample countries. CO2 Carbon dioxide EKC Environmental Kuznets curve EU European Union EF Ecological footprint G20 Group of twenty GHGs Greenhouse gases IPCC Intergovernmental panel on climate change OECD Organization for economic co-operation and development PCEF Per capita ecological footprint PCCF Per capita carbon footprint PS Phillips and Sul UNDP United Nations development programme [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Decisions taken under the Paris Agreement of the UNFCCC do not clarify how the principle of equity is to be operationalized. Proper consideration of different national circumstances is of paramount importance when designing any multilateral agreements, such as the Paris Agreement. Here, a methodology is presented that implements the equity principle in sharing the global climate budget among countries on the basis of their national circumstances identified by socio-economic factors such as the population size, the per-capita gross domestic product and the current net GHG emission, and physical factors such as the population density and the average temperature. The historical responsibility for net GHG emission since 1990 is dealt with by the financial commitments made by developed countries. The impact of international trade on actual net GHG emission associated with consumption of goods is deemed compensated by the carbon rights underlying the production of such traded goods. Results obtained show that without a consideration of national circumstances, large emitters can claim a larger quota. Nevertheless, national circumstances change over time because of social and economic development as well as because technological improvements. Consequently, quotas have to be recalculated over time (e.g. at each global stocktake). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The carbon footprint of shale gas combusted in Europe was estimated from nine European shale gas plays as potential production regions. Greenhouse gas emission sources during shale gas production, such as fugitives from hydraulic fracturing or combustion emissions from horizontal drilling, were added to emissions occurring for conventional gas extraction. Greenhouse gas emissions are expressed as g CO2-equivalents per MJ delivered, and calculated for a kWh of electricity generated. Estimated total GHG emissions from the use of European shale gas for electricity production range from 0.42 to 0.75 kg CO2-eq/kWh when the combustion in the power plant is included. This is within the range reported in the literature. The cumulative carbon footprints for a number of fossil electricity generation scenarios for Europe were also calculated. The results indicate an advantage of gas over other fossil sources in a wide range of scenarios. These results are only reversed with very high (10%) upstream losses for shale gas. With the current knowledge there is still a substantial climate benefit of replacing coal with (shale) gas even in the EU reference scenario. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The new GHG calculator named SECTOR (Source-selective and Emission-adjusted GHG CalculaTOR for Cropland) is based on the IPCC Tier 2 approach for rice as well as other crops. The new features of SECTOR facilitate high flexibility in terms of entering newly obtained emission factors, easy data transfer from crop statistics for entering activity data and detailed specifications of GHG scenarios. A new procedure of entering frequency-based data on current water management practices was also developed. Moreover, the tool allows deviating from the 2006 IPCC Guidelines by considering field records with high background levels of N2O emissions in the overall assessment of GHG emissions. This article assesses different applications of the tool, namely as add-ons to field measurements, for GHG calculation at national/sectorial scale and within measurement, reporting and verification of development projects. SECTOR is downloadable in the form of templates that can be used to develop custom versions with varying levels of disaggregated data entries at different scales. A case study for rice production in one Vietnamese province demonstrates the potential to display GHG results in combination with GIS. SECTOR can easily be adjusted to incorporate new emission factors and calculation procedures expected in forthcoming revisions of the IPCC Guidelines. A new GHG calculation tool was developed based on the IPCC Tier 2 approach for rice as well as other crops Features of the tool facilitate high flexibility in terms of emission factors, easy data transfer from crop statistics for entering activity data and detailed specification of GHG scenarios This article assesses different user groups and possible applications of the tool A case study for rice production in one Vietnamese province demonstrates the potential to display GHG results in combination with GIS [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Accuracy in national greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions estimation is a key element for outlining best strategies to reduce GHG emissions from various source sectors of the economy. In this study, an initial attempt has been made to estimate GHG emissions from waste sector in Rawal Town - an urban city of Rawalpindi district in Pakistan. Tier 1 approach of Revised 1996 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Guidelines and the best available primary activity data collected for the study area were applied for the fiscal year June 2014-May 2015. Emissions of three GHGs - carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O) under three waste management practices i.e. solid waste disposal sites, wastewater handling, and waste incineration were assessed. Out of the total 417.84 Gg CO2 equivalent emissions, the share of each gas (CH4, CO2 and N2O) in total emissions was found as 11.31, 0.53, and 0.58 Gg respectively. Solid waste disposal sites are identified as the largest source of CH4 emissions (10.73 Gg). To make the country's GHG emissions estimates more robust for waste sector, such type of local area based studies established on primary activity data could be advantageous for reducing uncertainties in national emission estimates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Paris Agreement calls on all nations to pursue efforts to contribute to limiting the global temperature increase to 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels. However, due to limited global, regional and country-specific analysis of highly ambitious GHG mitigation pathways, there is currently a lack of knowledge about the transformational changes needed in the coming decades to reach this target. Through a meta-analysis of mitigation scenarios for Germany, this article aims to contribute to an improved understanding of the changes needed in the energy system of an industrialized country. Differentiation among six key long-term energy system decarbonization strategies is suggested, and an analysis is presented of how these strategies will be pursued until 2050 in selected technologically detailed energy scenarios for Germany. The findings show, that certain strategies, including the widespread use of electricity-derived synthetic fuels in end-use sectors as well as behavioral changes, are typically applied to a greater extent in mitigation scenarios aiming at high GHG emission reductions compared to more moderate mitigation scenarios. The analysis also highlights that the pace of historical changes observed in Germany between 2000 and 2015 is clearly insufficient to adequately contribute to not only the 1.5 °C target, but also the 2 °C long-term global target. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present assess the green house gas (GHG) emission from cultivation over the past 50 years in India. Emission has increased by 161% over 50 years from 14.81 TgCE/year (0.12 tCE ha−1yr−1) in 1960 to 38.71 TgCE/year (0.28 tCE ha−1yr−1) by 2010. This is due to increase in the use of inputs primarily; chemical nitrogen fertilizer, shifting from conventional animal and human energy sources to carbon-intensive diesel and electricity-dependent machineries. It is also due to 16% decrease in area of less carbon-intensive coarse cereals and 22% increase in rice cultivation. Among crops, rice recorded maximum emission (23.75 Tg CE/ha) while it was lowest in redgram (2.98 Tg CE/ha). Nitrogen among inputs, accounted for 92 and 83% emission between 1960 and 2010 respectively while, nitrogen use efficiency declined, suggesting loss of added nitrogen to atmosphere as N2O. Methane accounted for 90 and 58% of emission over 1960 and 2010, respectively, indicating a declining trend over the years. Thus, amending nitrogen fertilizer use and measures to reduce methane emission alone can substantially reduce the carbon footprint of the crop cultivation process. There is also ample scope for reducing emissions from energy sources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Increasingly, universities are taking responsibility for climate protection. While there has been a growth of activities and studies on greening campus operations and curricula, student lifestyles may also be interesting to look at. This study focuses on student carbon emissions from consumption at the University of Applied Science in Konstanz, Germany. The study includes almost 10% of the university's students. Data on student lifestyle and emission patterns was collected via questionnaires and calculated with a web-based carbon calculator. The study analyzes personal carbon emissions and influencing factors from four consumption categories; housing (including heating and electricity), mobility (including private car use, public transport and aviation), food and other consumption. The findings show average students’ carbon footprint to be 10.9 t CO2 equivalent per year and of the same order of magnitude as the German average. While students cause less emission through heating because of smaller living space per person, they cause considerably more emission by aviation. A relatively small group of frequent flyers dominates aviation emissions. The study shows that the correlation between low income/expenditure and low carbon emissions is not valid for students due to high long-distance mobility. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The measurements necessary to estimate GHG emission inventories create uncertainty. Currently emission inventories are built on statistical data, parameters and some “other information.” Investigating the role of the latter has driven this analysis, since it has proven to be a key concept in understanding and reducing uncertainty. This article proposes a use-chain model to guide researchers in choosing the appropriate available method to deal with uncertainty. The model involves three main parts: data production, data analysis and data use. The findings suggest, first, that statistical techniques, although crucial, do not represent the only possible way to reduce uncertainty; and, second, that the appropriate way to deal with uncertainty depends on whether one is dealing with data production or data analysis or data use, each characterized by a different degree of specificity and by a different influence of the surrounding context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Alongside COP 21 in Paris, nearly 400 city mayors pledged to reduce urban greenhouse gas emissions, in some cases by dramatic amounts. As part of these pledges, mayors committed to count and track their emissions using a particular approach, the Global Protocol for Community-scale GHG emissions (GPC). The GPC, and most other, prior community-scale protocols like it, evolved from IPCC-based GHG accounting rules developed at the national scale, and where principles such ascompleteness,comparabilityandaccuracyare paramount. At a local scale, however, different principles – namely,relevance– may become more important, given the different focus and governance structures of city governments. Here, we propose improvements to local-scale GHG accounting approaches, including the GPC, that would delineate categories of emissions sources and activities over which local policymakers have more or less influence. For many cities, a primary, or “core” category of emissions could be devoted to CO2from buildings and passenger transport, and CH4from waste management. We argue that simplifying and focusing city-scale GHG accounting on these sources would improve the policy-relevance of city-scale GHG accounting and make it easier for cities to play effective roles in the global mobilization to limit warming to “well below” 2 degrees C. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reporting national greenhouses gas inventories for the Land Use, Land Use Change and Forestry (LULUCF) under the United Nations Framework Convention for Climate Change (UNFCCC) has been driving significant development of national data. Lands classification and definitions for C pools are very different across the 28 EU member states, as are the methods used for data collection and processing. Even when definitions or sampling methods were in substance the same, specifications were-different. However, member states' inventories are assumed to be fully comparable and consistent with reporting principles. For forest, data collection rely on forest inventory repeated measurements (both statistical sampling and stand-wise), while for most important contributor, the biomass, there is no preference for “gain-loss” or “stock-change” method. For cropland and grasslands, operational records information is equally important to statistical sampling and aerial photography sources for area estimation, while default emission factors are used less and less as they are being replaced by country-specific data. The obvious trend is the move toward statistical sampling covering all land categories within national territory and slight increasing use of models. Such heterogeneity requires a better harmonization of data collection and processing as to increase the credibility of the EU GHG inventory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Higher education institutions (HEIs) can play a key role in facilitating the transition to a low carbon economy, where reporting greenhouse gas emissions is an important step in this process. While most UK HEIs are required to report estate emissions, engagement with supply chain emissions has been inconsistent. This research examined emissions arising from the air travel of international and study-abroad students and their visiting friends and relatives (VFR). Survey results demonstrated that flight frequencies were substantially higher than those assumed in sector guidance. An analysis of 25 UK HEIs found student and VFR flight emissions were significant, each being greater than other Scope 3 travel and comparable to Scope 2 emissions. Scenario analysis suggests that by 2020/2021, increases in flight emissions are likely to exceed reductions in estate emissions unless HEIs reinvigorate efforts to achieve reduction targets, and/or there is close to zero growth in inbound and outbound student numbers. It is thus imperative that HEIs develop an accurate picture of these emissions in order to inform their carbon management and internationalization strategies. In doing so, the risk of a rebound-type effect must also be considered, where if action is taken to reduce student flights, VFR flights may increase. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article analyzes the dynamics of GHG emissions in Ukraine for the period 1990–2012. The effectiveness of using flexible mechanisms of the Kyoto Protocol as an instrument of regulation of greenhouse gases is investigated. The official position and prospects of Ukraine's participation in the second period of a global climate agreement are considered. Existing measures of state policy aimed to improve the environmental performance of the domestic economy, namely the promotion of energy generation from renewable sources, and an environmental tax, are also discussed. The main barriers to effective implementation of measures for low carbon growth in Ukraine are outlined. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The article discusses the accounting methods to attribute greenhouse gas emissions pertaining to land use activities and products. Topics discussed include the effects of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emission on the environment and the factors that leads to agricultural and forestry emission such as deforestation, land use for agricultural activities and trade and transport of goods.

“The amount of knowledge about our earth and the climate system that has been gained from sustained measurements of atmospheric CO2and other gases is immeasurable, yet these programmes are required to justify themselves as hypothesis-driven experiments every 3 years to funding agencies with oscillating budgets and priorities.“ [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Pilot plant operation is a necessary step that needs to be implemented prior to full-scale commercial plant design and operation, especially for a yet-to-be commercial technology such as post-combustion CO2 capture. This article, the eighth and final part of the post-combustion carbon capture technology Review Series, highlights issues that can be encountered and methods to resolve them prior to embarking on a full-scale design and operation. In particular, the article highlights the likelihood of potential flaws in the assumptions usually made in designing absorption-based CO2 capture plants. An example of this can be seen when attempting to transpose the design philosophy in natural gas processing to amine-based CO2 capture. This article also indicates optimum operating ranges suitable to obtain optimum plant performance. Equally, it shows the impact that flue gas impurities can have on solvent stability, off-gas emissions, liquid and solid wastes generated, and overall plant performance. There is an optimum plant size that is suitable for pilot plant studies. The pilot plant should be big enough that engineering data obtained can be used reliably for plant design, and small enough to allow for plant configuration changes at a reasonable cost. This article notes that a quick chemical analysis is essential in order to establish good control of the CO2 capture process. Future trends will therefore see the development of techniques for quick online analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]