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The reliance on petroleum derivatives and the increasing trend of fuel consumption in the transport sector have brought attention to biofuels as a measure to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, enhance energy security and boost economic development. The incentive for utilizing biofuels is their potential to reduce carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions compared to fossil fuels. Biofuels are considered to be carbon-neutral, regarding the direct CO2 emissions associated with their combustion, on the grounds that the carbon dioxide absorbed by the plants through photosynthesis is equivalent to the CO2 released during their combustion. However, a part of the carbon of biofuels may have a fossil origin and therefore, it is responsible for "non-neutral" CO2 emissions. This was recognized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in its guidelines for greenhouse gas inventories. Nevertheless, specific guidance of how to estimate fossil CO2 emissions per each type of biofuel, in order to facilitate the work of emission inventory compilers and practitioners, is neither available in the IPCC guidelines nor in the scientific literature. The purpose of this paper is to define a higher tier method to estimate the associated CO2 emissions with the fossil carbon content of biofuels, aiming to cover all possible biofuel types that are mainly used nowadays to replace diesel and gasoline. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

How relevant is the role of CO2 from harvested wood products (HWPs) for the Brazilian GHG emission balance? The C stocks and CO2 emissions and removals from the HWPs in Brazil during 1900–2016 were evaluated using three methodological approaches: stock-change approach (SCA), production approach (PA), and stock-change of domestic origin (SCDOA). Data from the FAO's FAOSTAT system on production, import and export of semi-finished products (sawnwood, wood-based panels and paper/paperboard) were analyzed, considering distinct land-use activities: deforestation (D), forest management (FM) and afforestation/reforestation (A/R). Two scenarios to evaluate the effect of HWPs from D were evaluated. The C stock in HWPs in 2016 reached 252 Mt C, by SCA. Contributions to C storage historically were higher from sawnwood, but wood-based panels and paper/paperboard have recently outperformed it. A/R is the major activity responsible for C storage in HWPs. The CO2 removal by HWPs was 521 Mt during 1990–2016, which corresponds to 1.1% of the country's emissions in the same period. It was concluded that Brazil has become a major producer and wood consumer and that HWPs are allies for a positive C balance and fulfillment of the commitments assumed by the country regarding climate change. AFOLU Agriculture, forestry and other land uses A/R Afforestation/reforestation D Deforestation FAO United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization FM Forest management HWPs Harvested wood products IBGE Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics PA Production approach PEVS Plant extraction and forestry SCA Stock-change approach SCDOA Stock-change of domestic origin approach [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on provincial panel data from 2000 to 2014, this paper measured the total factor energy efficiency by adopting the dynamic slacks-based measure model, and then employed the spatial econometric model to analyze the impact of regional mitigation of carbon dioxide on energy efficiency from both intra-regional and inter-regional perspectives in China. The results show the following: first, the average of total factor energy efficiency presents a rising trend from 2000 to 2014, and it shows a significant difference among regions. Second, the direct effect of carbon productivity on energy efficiency is positive, but the indirect effect is negative. The share ratio of direct and indirect effects is 1: −0.96; the total effect is positive but insignificant. Based on this conclusion, the paper provides some relevant policy suggestions and measures for regionally saving energy resources and relieving environmental constraints. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Cuajimalpa campus of the Autonomous Metropolitan University (UAM) is located in the western region of Mexico City. In 2016, its global average population (students, faculty and staff) was around 2750 people. Campus policies include sustainability as one of its main aims. To evaluate and eventually reduce the environmental impact of the campus, its greenhouse gas (GHG) inventory was assessed and the carbon footprint was calculated, using the GHG protocol (GHGP): Scope 1: direct GHG emissions; Scope 2: indirect GHG emissions; and Scope 3: other indirect GHG emissions, on a calendar year basis. Scope 1 includes mobile and stationary sources and leakage of refrigerants; Scope 2 includes electrical energy usage; Scope 3 includes consumption of paper, food, water, gases, cleaning products, solvents, wastewater treatment, municipal and hazardous wastes and academic travel. In 2016, the campus produced around 3000 tons of CO2 equivalent, with Scope 1, 2 and 3 accounting for 4%, 24% and 72%, respectively. Emissions analysis by activity indicated 51% for commuting; 24% for electricity usage; 14% for academic travel; 11% for other activities. The inventory will aid the establishment of policies for reduction and mitigation of GHG, resulting in environmental and potential economic benefits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A reduction in the CO2 emission intensity (ton per gross domestic product) from a base year to a target year with different rates of reduction in each individual year can yield different cumulative CO2 emissions over time, which could have different effects on the climate. In this paper, an indicator is proposed to measure the extent to which the cumulative CO2 emissions are generated by a specific reduction trajectory of CO2 emission intensity, especially for emerging economies with a relatively higher economic growth rate. The proposed indicator is important for less-developed countries and regions in which economic growth is heavily reliant on energy and in which significant potential exists for improvement of energy efficiency. The indicator is applied to evaluate the CO2 emission reduction performance in China's 12th Five-Year Plan period, and the result is not encouraging, especially when the likely gap between the energy conservation goals and temperature goals is further examined. Mitigation goals should be set by considering not only the performance in the final year, but also the reduction in cumulative emissions over the evaluation period. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study analyzes the effect of the penalty system in an emission trading scheme (ETS) on pricing and abatement activities. No previous studies have shown that the ways of penalizing for unretired permits specifically might have a crucial role in permit pricing. Most studies show that the penalty rate is fixed, as in the EU-ETS, but this paper focuses on the mechanism that price affects penalty and this again affects price. The Korea ETS case is examined as an example in which the per-unit penalty for unretired permits is determined by the average market price. Based on simple analytical modeling, this study derives policy implications that differ from the pre-determined penalty rate system: that the penalty system linked with market prices causes downward pressure on market prices, that the maximum rate is not very meaningful in pricing, that the multiplication level of the penalty rate affects market prices, and that this price-linked penalizing system can affect the overall level of abatement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change poses one of the greatest challenges of any kind facing human society today. It is a threat to the availability of land, air, food and water - all of which are key constituents of the Sustainable Development Goals. Much of the observed change in climate is anthropogenic in nature. Hence, it is imperative for all human societies to make a positive contribution in spreading greater public awareness and engagement for creating a more sustainable world. Due to the lack of a reliable carbon footprint measurement system specific to Indian conditions, a robust multimedia application has been developed and designed in the form of India's first certified Carbon Footprint Calculator. Titled the ‘Yo!Green’ Carbon Calculator, it allows individuals and households to measure their greenhouse gas emissions, and recommends simple mitigation measures based on their emission profile. This paper presents the methodologies, assumptions and processes which have been adopted to develop the Yo!Green Carbon Calculator. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The voluntary carbon market (VCM) is a relatively mature field where institutions have become firmly established. This empirical paper explores findings obtained from interviewing key actors within the VCM in New Zealand, at a time when the organizational field was beginning to emerge (2010/2011). Fourteen semi-structured interviews were carried out with managers and decision-makers at 13 organizations, representing a cross-section of leaders in the field at the time. Participants were investigated regarding their cognitions as well as their operational activities and interactions with the range of actors in the field, and how these evolved over time. Case studies of the wine industry, the taxi industry and the carbon services industry are presented. Findings identify a number of early successes, including endeavors which focused on promoting market integrity through infrastructure and knowledge sharing amongst participants, which influenced others to shift behavior around climate change mitigation in general. Setbacks are evident as well, with the primary setback characterized as market stagnation: buyers and sellers drifting away from the market. Communication challenges, low certification recognition, risk of greenwash exposure, policy uncertainty, the global financial crisis and general disenchantment with the carbon market were listed as some of the causes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper estimates the Indian carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions over the last two decades at sectoral and sub-regional levels to identify hotspots of CO2emissions, providing possible insights for focused carbon mitigation efforts pan-India. The CO2emissions are also estimated at the level of 1151 large point sources to identify hotspots for mitigation and also to demonstrate future possibilities for CO2storage in nearby geological sinks. India's CO2emission grew at around 5% compound annual growth rate (CAGR) between the years 1990 and 2013. From the 1897 Mt of CO2emission electricity generation, transport and iron & steel industry contributed 48%, 11.6% and 7.9% respectively. Districts of Kachchh, Sonbhadra and Korba were the largest CO2emitters, mainly due to the location of coal-based mega power projects. The district-level emissions estimates show a flattening of the distribution curve of CO2emissions over the years, indicating that more districts are now crowding up the higher emission space, partly driven by income effects. Our estimate of CO2emission intensity of the Indian economy shows 11% decoupling of growth of emissions and gross domestic product during 2005–2013, 2005 being the base year for India under the Paris climate change agreement. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The Paris Agreement of the UNFCCC aims at ‘holding the increase in the global average temperature to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels and pursuing efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels, recognizing that this would significantly reduce the risks and impacts of climate change.’ It is difficult to see how this could be achieved without a significant use of biomass to replace fossil fuels and, in combination with carbon capture and storage, as a sink of carbon dioxide. Biomass also is essentially the only product group that can feed a growing world population, the production of biomass needs to significantly increase globally. This paper assesses the role of photosynthesis in the world's energy supply and the possibilities to engineer the photosynthetic apparatus toward higher efficiency and direct production of photosynthetic fuels. A decarbonization route through this type of technological development could significantly contribute to the transition to a global fossil-free energy system. From the users’ point of view this would be an attractive route, since most of the energy systems, including transformation, distribution and final use, could remain more or less unchanged. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

In this opinion paper, we contend that in light of recent findings and the expected future of Indian coal business, fugitive methane emissions from coal mining and handling activities may come to occupy a larger share of the national GHG inventory, and therefore methane mitigation through various approaches of coalbed methane (CBM) extraction should occupy significantly more importance in mitigating climate change. The factors in play here are the increasing global warming potential (GWP) of methane from the second to the fifth assessment reports of the IPCC, calls by researchers to shift to 20-year time frames for GWP, increasing coal production by India and the availability of coal mine methane (CMM) technology for simultaneous coal and gas production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Almost two decades since the Kyoto Protocol was adopted, global greenhouse gas emissions are still rising rapidly. We argue that the global climate policy focus on carbon markets has played a significant role in the failure to reduce emissions. There are 16 compliance carbon markets in operation across the world. Many more are planned, although there have been numerous problems with carbon trading, including ineffectiveness, weak regulation and implementation, instances of fraud, little to no emissions reduction and major legitimacy issues for governments and the private sector. In this paper we take a “strong” position, arguing that carbon markets do not have a role to play in a policy scenario that requires radical emissions reductions in order to avoid dangerous greenhouse gas concentrations. We put forward 10 reasons why carbon markets should not be the preferred climate policy choice, which we have collated from positions taken by grassroots social movement organizations, think tanks, NGOs and other political advocacy groups as well as individual scientists and scholars. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This paper reviews the literature on urban carbon governance, which has become a burgeoning area of research. Since the early 1990s, the field has grown and diversified geographically, theoretically and methodologically, and now encompasses a wide range of topics, including governing techniques, limitations and challenges, central-local relations, municipal networks, network governance and grassroots initiatives. Given the increasingly global nature of low-carbon urbanism and governance, these studies have expanded our knowledge on the complexity and plurality of the role of cities in addressing climate change. This review serves as a consolidated guide for researchers, policymakers and students in this field. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Background: Cities play a significant role globally in creating carbon emissions but, as centers of major population, innovation and social practice, they also offer important opportunities to tackle climate change. The new challenges faced by cities in an 'age of austerity' and decentralist agendas present substantial challenges for coordinated multilevel governance. Results: Based on research carried out in 2011–2012, this paper examines the attitudes and responses of sustainability and climate change officers in UK cities that have prepared low carbon and climate change plans, in the context of these challenges. Using a conceptual framework that analyses 'awareness', 'analysis' and 'actions' (in the context of spending cuts and a new 'decentralized' policy agenda) this research suggests that progress on low-carbon futures for cities continues to be fragmented, with increased funding constraints, short-termism and lack of leadership acting as key barriers to progress. Conclusion: Recent UK national policies (including localism, austerity measures and new economic incentives) have not only created further uncertainties, but also scope for cities' local innovation through policy leverage and self-governing actions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]