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The catalytic conversion of renewable feedstocks into chemicals is pursued as a means to sustainably fulfil future societal needs. Due to the oxygen-rich nature of bio-derived substrates, isomerisation, transfer-hydrogenation and retro-aldol reactions have emerged as relevant transformations to produce commodity chemicals and polymer building blocks. In this context, porous materials containing Lewis-acid metals (e.g., Al, Ga, Sn, Ti, Zr) play an important role. Among these, tin-containing zeolites have demonstrated superior catalytic properties which have mainly been attributed to their hydrophobicity and crystallinity. This review evaluates the versatility and the scalability of bottom-up and top-down approaches to introduce Lewis-acid functionalities in zeolitic matrices. A precise characterisation is shown to be crucial to determine the structure, acidity and environment of the sites introduced. In this regard, we highlight the limitations of conventional techniques and the advantages of analytical and modelling tools recently applied to gain an improved understanding of these solids. Thereafter, property-performance relations and important aspects for the industrial amenability of new synthetic routes are exemplified through case studies. Finally, we put forward the need for gathering deeper knowledge of the site location, surface properties and stability to aid the design of next-generation Lewis-acid catalysts.

Crystalline microporous solids are an important class of inorganic materials with uses in different areas impacting our everyday lives, namely as catalysts, adsorbents, and ion exchangers. Advancements in synthesis have been invaluable in expanding the classical aluminosilicate zeolites to new unique framework types and compositions, motivating innovative developments. However, the inexhaustible post-synthetic options to tailor zeolite properties have been and will continue to be indispensable to realize emerging and to improve conventional applications. Starting from the routine drying and template removal processes that every zeolite must experience prior to use, a wide spectrum of treatments exists to alter individual or collective characteristics of these materials for optimal performance. This review documents the toolbox of post-synthetic strategies available to tune the properties of zeolitic materials for specific functions. The categorisation is based on the scale at which the alteration is aimed at, including the atomic structure (e.g. the introduction, dislodgment, or replacement of framework atoms), the micropore level (e.g. template removal and functionalisation by inorganic and organic species), and the crystal and particle levels (e.g. the introduction of auxiliary porosity). Through examples in the recent literature, it is shown that the combination of post-synthetic methods enables rational zeolite design, extending the characteristics of these materials way beyond those imposed by the synthesis conditions.

The introduction of synthetic zeolites has led to a paradigm shift in catalysis, separations, and adsorption processes, due to their unique properties such as crystallinity, high-surface area, acidity, ion-exchange capacity, and shape-selective character. However, the sole presence of micropores in these materials often imposes intracrystalline diffusion limitations, rendering low utilisation of the zeolite active volume in catalysed reactions. This critical review examines recent advances in the rapidly evolving area of zeolites with improved accessibility and molecular transport. Strategies to enhance catalyst effectiveness essentially comprise the synthesis of zeolites with wide pores and/or with short diffusion length. Available approaches are reviewed according to the principle, versatility, effectiveness, and degree of reality for practical implementation, establishing a firm link between the properties of the resulting materials and the catalytic function. We particularly dwell on the exciting field of hierarchical zeolites, which couple in a single material the catalytic power of micropores and the facilitated access and improved transport consequence of a complementary mesopore network. The carbon templating and desilication routes as examples of bottom-up and top-down methods, respectively, are reviewed in more detail to illustrate the benefits of hierarchical zeolites. Despite encircling the zeolite field, this review stimulates intuition into the design of related porous solids (116 references).