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Antibodies recognizing infliximab (IFX) may develop in a proportion of treated patients, leading to loss of response or hypersensitivity reactions (HRs). T cell response to IFX has been poorly investigated. This paper was addressed to detect IFX-specific T cells in treated patients with inflammatory diseases developing, or not, anti-drug antibodies (ADA) and to correlate the presence of specific T cells with the clinical outcomes of the treatment. A co-culture system of IFX-loaded dendritic cells and purified autologous CD4+ T cells was used to detect memory T cells in 32 ADA+ and 39 ADA- IFX-treated patients and control groups. The cytokine profile of IFX-specific T cells was also studied in culture supernatants. IFX-specific cell proliferation was detected mainly in cells from ADA+ patients, irrespective of their different diseases. HR patients displayed higher T cell proliferation than non-responder and tolerant patients. A mixed [interferon (IFN)-γ, interleukin (IL)-13, IL-10] cytokine profile was shown in cells from ADA+ patients, while IL-10 was the most frequently detected cytokine in the supernatants of cultures from ADA- patients. Immunoglobulin (Ig)E+ADA+ patients with previous HRs exhibited a more pronounced type 2 profile than IgE-ADA+ patients. This work provides evidence that IFX-specific circulating T cells are detectable mainly in ADA+ patients with HRs, regardless of their disease. The IFX-induced cytokine pattern partially correlates with the ADA isotype. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary For many years, tonsillectomy has been used routinely in children to treat chronic or recurrent acute tonsillitis. Palatine tonsils are secondary lymphoid organs and the major barrier protecting the digestive and respiratory tracts from potential invasive microorganisms. They have been used as sources of lymphoid tissue; however, despite the hundreds of papers published on tonsillectomy, no studies addressing the functionality of the CD4+ and CD8+ T cells from chronically infected tonsils have yet been published. The aim of this study was to analyse the functionality of the CD4+ and CD8+ T cells with respect to tonsillar tissue. We used an affordable approach to measure the frequency of antigen-specific CD4+ T cells, the direct ex-vivo cytotoxicity of CD8+ T cells, memory T cell phenotype, cytokine profile and DC phenotype. Our results demonstrate that CD4+ and CD8+ T cells from tonsillar tissue are totally functional, as shown by their ability to produce cytokines, to degranulate and to differentiate into effector-memory T cells. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

T cell lines with defined cytokine profiles are an invaluable tool for assessing the control of immune responses both in vitro and in vivo. Production of such cell lines can be complex and time-consuming. Here we present a powerful technique to assay the cytokines produced by T cells activated polyclonally or with specific antigens. This paper presents a detailed methodology for the identification and isolation of cytokine-producing T cells activated with the artificial superantigen, CytoStim, or viral and fungal antigens. These cells can be analysed for different cytokines simultaneously, or cultured further to rapidly establish T cell lines making known cytokine types. We highlight the enumeration, isolation and phenotype of interleukin-17-producing T cells, and the rapid generation of virus-specific Th1 T cell lines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

OTHER ARTICLES PUBLISHED IN THIS MINI-REVIEW SERIES ON Th17 CELLS Function and regulation of human T helper 17 cells in health and disease. Clin Exp Immunol 2009; doi:10.1111/j.1365-2249.2009.04037.x Are T helper 17 cells really pathogenic in autoimmunity? Clin Exp Immunol 2009; doi:10.1111/j.1365-2249.2009.04039.x CD4+ T helper cells: functional plasticity and differential sensitivity to regulatory T cell-mediated regulation. Clin Exp Immunol 2009; doi:10.1111/j.1365-2249.2009.04040.x Development of mouse and human T helper 17 cells. Clin Exp Immunol 2009; doi:10.1111/j.1365-2249.2009.04041.x Uncommitted (naive) CD4+ T helper cells (Thp) can be induced to differentiate to specific lineages according to the local cytokine milieu, towards T helper type 1 (Th1), Th2, Th17 and regulatory T cell (Treg) phenotypes in a mutually exclusive manner. Each phenotype is characterized by unique signalling pathways and expression of specific transcription factors, notably T-bet for Th1, GATA-3 for Th2, forkhead box P3 (FoxP3) for Tregs and receptor-related orphan receptor (ROR)α and RORγt for Th17 cells. Tregs and Th17 cells have been demonstrated to arise from common precursors in a reciprocal manner based on exposure to transforming growth factor (TGF)-β or TGF-β plus interleukin (IL)-6 and carry out diametrically opposing functions, namely suppression or propagation of inflammation, respectively. However, while epigenetic modifications in Th1 and Th2 differentiated cells prevents their conversion to other phenotypes, Th17 cells generated in vitro using TGF-β and IL-6 are unstable and can convert to other phenotypes, especially Th1, both in vitro and in vivo. Tregs are generated from naive precursors both in the thymus (natural, nTregs) and in the periphery (induced, iTregs). The highly suppressive function of Tregs enables them to control many inflammatory diseases in animals and makes them particularly attractive candidates for immunotherapy in humans. The stability of the Treg phenotype is therefore of paramount importance in this context. Recent descriptions of Treg biology have suggested that components of pathogens or inflammatory mediators may subvert the suppressive function of Tregs in order to allow propagation of adequate immune responses. Unexpectedly, however, a number of groups have now described conversion of Tregs to the Th17 phenotype induced by appropriate inflammatory stimuli. These observations are particularly relevant in the context of cell therapy but may also explain some of the dysregulation seen in autoimmune diseases. In this paper, we review Treg to Th17 conversion and propose some potential mechanisms for this phenomenon. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

OTHER ARTICLES PUBLISHED IN THIS MINI-REVIEW SERIES ON Th17 CELLS Function and regulation of human T helper 17 cells in health and disease. Clin Exp Immunol 2009; doi:10.1111/j.1365-2249.2009.04037.x Induction of interleukin-17 production by regulatory T cells. Clin Exp Immunol 2009; doi:10.1111/j.1365-2249.2009.04038.x Are T helper 17 cells really pathogenic in autoimmunity? Clin Exp Immunol 2009; doi:10.1111/j.1365-2249.2009.04039.x CD4+ T helper cells: functional plasticity and differential sensitivity to regulatory T cell-mediated regulation. Clin Exp Immunol 2009; doi:10.1111/j.1365-2249.2009.04040.x There has been a considerable amount of interest in the immunological community about new phenotypic subsets of CD4+ T cells, particularly cells that produce the cytokine interleukin (IL)-17 [named T helper type 17 (Th17) cells]. While the initial discovery of Th17 cells and the pathways that controlled their development was in the mouse, recent attention has shifted to the existence of these cells and the relevant upstream cytokine signals in humans. While it is clear that CD4+ T cells producing IL-17 exist in vivo, their relevance to disease pathogenesis is only just being understood. In this paper, we review the data regarding the generation of human Th17 cells in vitro and the evidence that this effector population is important in human disease states. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is characterized by an excessive inflammatory response to inhaled particles, mainly tobacco smoking. T lymphocytes are important regulatory cells that secrete several cytokines and participate actively in this inflammatory response. According to the pattern of cytokines secreted, the immune response is classified as cytotoxic or type 1 [interferon (IFN)-γ-, interleukin (IL)-2-dependent] and humoral or type 2 (IL-4-, IL-5-, IL-10- and IL-13-dependent). This paper sought to compare the intracellular profile of cytokine expression determined by flow cytometry in T lymphocytes harvested from bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) and peripheral blood in patients with COPD, smokers with normal lung function and never smokers. We found that BAL T lymphocytes from COPD patients had a higher percentage of positive stained cells for most of the cytokines analysed when compared to never smokers or smokers with normal lung function. Differences reached statistical significance for IL-4, IL-10 and IL-13, particularly in CD8+ T cells. Furthermore, the expression of most of these cytokines was related inversely to the degree of airflow obstruction present suggesting local activation and/or selective homing of T lymphocytes to the lungs in COPD patients. These observations were not reproduced in circulating T lymphocytes. These results suggest that BAL T lymphocytes in patients with COPD produce more cytokines than in controls and tend to show a type 2 pattern of intracellular cytokine expression, particularly a Tc-2 profile. This is related inversely to the degree of airflow obstruction present. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]