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Integration, in U.S. history, the goal of an organized movement to break down the barriers of discrimination and segregation separating African Americans from the rest of American society. Racial segregation was peculiar neither to the American South nor to the United States (see apartheid). [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Manorial system (mənôr′ēəl, măn–) or seignorial system (sēnyôr′ēəl), economic and social system of medieval Europe under which peasants' land tenure and production were regulated, and local justice and taxation were administered. The system was intimately related to feudalism but was not itself feudal, since it had no connection with the military and political concept of the fief. The fundamental characteristic of the manorial system was economic—the peasants held land from the lord (Fr. seigneur) of an estate in return for fixed dues in kind, money, and services. The manorial system prevailed in France, England, Germany, Spain, and Italy and far into Eastern Europe. A similar method of landholding by the peasants has existed in countries outside Europe, notably Japan and India. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Ku Klux Klan (kōō″ klŭks klăn), designation mainly given to two distinct secret societies that played a part in American history, although other less important groups have also used the name. The first Ku Klux Klan was an organization that thrived in the South during the Reconstruction period following the Civil War. The second was a nationwide organization that flourished after World War I. Subsequent groups calling themselves the Ku Klux Klan sprang up in much of the South after World War II and in response to civil-rights activity during the 1960s. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Homosexuality, a term created by 19th cent. theorists to describe a sexual and emotional interest in members of one's own sex. Today a person is often said to have a homosexual or a heterosexual orientation, a description intended to defuse some of the long-standing sentiment among many Westerners that homosexuality is immoral or pathological. Homosexual practices are not afforded any special moral or psychological significance in many other cultures. A survey of 190 societies around the world (1951) reported that homosexual practices were considered acceptable behavior in approximately 70% of them. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Guilds or gilds, economic and social associations of persons engaging in the same business or craft, typical of Western Europe in the Middle Ages. Membership was by profession or craft, and the primary function was to establish local control over that profession or craft by setting standards of workmanship and price, by protecting the business from competition, and by establishing status in society for members of the guild. In the Western world today the term guild is used for certain associations that have little connection with the medieval institution. Some of the great professional associations (e.g., in medicine and law) fulfill some of the functions of the old guilds but are rarely given that name. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Freemasonry, teachings and practices of the secret fraternal order officially known as the Free and Accepted Masons, or Ancient Free and Accepted Masons. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Censorship, official prohibition or restriction of any type of expression believed to threaten the political, social, or moral order. It may be imposed by governmental authority, local or national, by a religious body, or occasionally by a powerful private group. It may be applied to the mails, speech, the press, the theater, dance, art, literature, photography, the cinema, radio, television, or computer networks. Censorship may be either preventive or punitive, according to whether it is exercised before or after the expression has been made public. In use since antiquity, the practice has been particularly thoroughgoing under autocratic and heavily centralized governments, from the Roman Empire to the totalitarian states of the 20th cent. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Suburb, a community in an outlying section of a city or, more commonly, a nearby, politically separate municipality with social and economic ties to the central city. In the 20th cent., particularly in the United States, population growth in urban areas has spilled increasingly outside the city limits and concentrated there, resulting in large metropolitan areas where the populations of the suburbs taken together exceed that of the central city. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Social welfare or public charity, organized provision of educational, cultural, medical, and financial assistance to the needy. Modern social welfare measures may include any of the following: the care of destitute adults; the treatment of the mentally ill; the rehabilitation of criminals; the care of destitute, neglected, and delinquent children; the care and relief of the sick or handicapped; the care and relief of needy families; and supervisory, educational, and constructive activity, especially for the young. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Russell, Bertrand Arthur William Russell, 3d Earl, 1872–1970, British philosopher, mathematician, and social reformer, b. Trelleck, Wales. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Refugee, one who leaves one's native land either because of expulsion or to escape persecution. The legal problem of accepting refugees is discussed under asylum; this article considers only mass dislocations and the organizations that help refugees. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Nationalism, political or social philosophy in which the welfare of the nation-state as an entity is considered paramount. Nationalism is basically a collective state of mind or consciousness in which people believe their primary duty and loyalty is to the nation-state. Often nationalism implies national superiority and glorifies various national virtues. Thus love of nation may be overemphasized; concern with national self-interest to the exclusion of the rights of other nations may lead to international conflict. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Maroon, term for a fugitive slave in the 17th and 18th cent. in the West Indies and Guiana, or for a descendant of such slaves. They were called marron by the French and cimarrón by the Spanish. Formerly much used in the West Indies and South America, the term later came to be used with particular reference to certain blacks living in W Jamaica. The maroons fled when the British began their conquest of the island from the Spanish in 1655 and maintained a hostile independence until 1739, when a treaty granting them lands of their own and virtual independence was concluded. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Mannheim, Karl (män′hīm), 1893–1947, Austro-Hungarian sociologist and historian, born and educated in Hungary. He taught at Heidelberg and Frankfurt and, from 1933 to his death, at the Univ. of London. In his historical writings he emphasized the role of social values. Mannheim was influenced by—but critical of—Karl Marx. His best-known work is Ideology and Utopia (1929, tr. 1936), but his essays were influential in developing the field of the sociology of knowledge, which studies how ideas should be analyzed in their social context. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Madison, Dolley, 1768–1849, wife of President James Madison, b. Guilford co., N.C. Born Dolley Payne of Quaker parents, she was brought up in simplicity and was married (1790) to a Quaker, John Todd, who died in the yellow fever epidemic of 1793. She left the Friends to marry Madison in 1794. In later years as official White House hostess for President Jefferson (who was a widower) and for her husband, both in the White House and at Montpelier, she was noted for the magnificence of her entertaining as well as for charm, tact, and grace. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

MacIver, Robert Morrison (məkē′vər, –kī′vər), 1882–1970, Scottish-American sociologist, b. Scotland, grad. Univ. of Edinburgh and Oxford. He began teaching at Columbia Univ. in 1927. His books, in which he discusses the complexities of social and political organization, include Community: A Sociological Study (1917), Society: Its Structure and Changes (1931), The Web of Government (1947), The Pursuit of Happiness (1955), Life: Its Dimensions and Its Bounds (1960), The Challenge of the Passing Years (1962), Social Causation (1964), The Prevention and Control of Delinquency (1966), Politics & Society (1969), and On Community, Society, and Power; Selected Writings, ed. by L. Bramson (1970). [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Macdonald, Flora, 1722–90, Scottish Jacobite heroine. She aided Charles Edward Stuart, known as Bonnie Prince Charlie, to escape to France after the defeat of the Jacobites at Culloden Moor in 1746. For smuggling the prince, disguised as a woman, to the Isle of Skye, she was imprisoned briefly in the Tower of London. Later she was visited by many celebrities, including Dr. Samuel Johnson (1773). Her romantic aid to the prince is commemorated in Highland ballad and legend. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

McAllister, Ward (Samuel Ward McAllister), 1827–95, American society leader, b. Savannah, Ga. He was a wealthy San Francisco lawyer, who moved (1852) to New York City and married (1853) a millionaire's daughter. He established a second residence at Newport, R.I., and soon became the arbiter of the New York and Newport social set. McAllister chose (1872) the patriarchs, a group of leaders from prominent New York families, and sifted out (1892) the Four Hundred—people whom he deemed members of true New York society. It was McAllister who groomed the famous Mrs. William Astor for her role as queen of New York society. He wrote Society as I Have Found It (1890). [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Le Play, Pierre Guillaume Frédéric (pyĕr gēyōm′ frādārēk′ lə plā), 1806–82, French sociologist and economist. As an engineer he traveled through Europe, gathering data on the budgets of working-class families and making detailed studies to determine the relationships of the family and worker to the environment. His use of the social-survey method had a widespread influence on sociologists. Among his books are Les Ouvriers européens [the European workers] (1855), condensed and republished as Réforme sociale en France (1864), and La Constitution de l'Angleterre [the constitution of England] (1875). [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Lenclos, Ninon de (nēnôN′ də läNklō′), 1620–1705, French beauty and wit. Her real name was Anne de Lenclos. She numbered among her many lovers and friends such eminent men as the Great Condé, La Rochefoucauld, and Saint-Évremond. She gathered in her Paris salon a circle of wits and literary figures. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Le Bon, Gustave (güstäv′ lə bôN), 1841–1931, French psychologist and sociologist. He was the author of a number of works on social psychology, in which he expounded theories of national traits and racial superiority. His works include Psychologie des foules (1895; tr. The Crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind, 1897). [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Lease, Mary Elizabeth, 1853–1933, American agrarian reformer and temperance advocate, b. Ridgeway, Pa. The daughter of an Irish political refugee, she first gained recognition for a series of lectures (1885–87) on Ireland and the Irish. She had gone to Kansas as a young woman, was admitted to the bar, and became active in Populist politics in the campaign of 1890. Known during this period as Mary Ellen Lease, she was dubbed Mary Yellin Lease by her opponents because of her flamboyant oratorical style. Urging the popular election of Senators, the setting up of postal savings banks, government control of railroads, federal supervision of corporations, woman suffrage, free silver, prohibition, and other reforms, she gained lasting fame by advising the farmers to raise less corn and more hell. In 1908 she became a lecturer for the New York department of education and in 1912 supported Theodore Roosevelt in the Bull Moose campaign. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Lazarsfeld, Paul F. (lä′zərsfĕlt″), 1901–76, American sociologist, b. Vienna. After beginning as a mathematician, he established a research center for social psychology. Emigrating to the United States in 1933, he taught at Columbia Univ. (1949–69), where he founded the Bureau of Applied Social Research. Lazarsfeld has been the most important influence on quantitative sociological research in the 20th cent. He developed social survey research, and made major contributions to mathematical sociology, methodology, and the study of mass communications and voting behavior. His studies indicated that voters follow informal media-wise leaders among family and friends rather than the media itself. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Law, rules of conduct of any organized society, however simple or small, that are enforced by threat of punishment if they are violated. Modern law has a wide sweep and regulates many branches of conduct. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Lathrop, Julia Clifford, 1858–1932, American social worker and administrator, b. Rockford, Ill., grad. Vassar, 1880. Associated with Jane Addams at Hull House in Chicago, she was active in civic work, aiding in founding (1899) the country's first juvenile court. From 1912 to 1921 she was head of the U.S. Children's Bureau. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

La Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, François Alexandre Frédéric, duc de (älĕksäN′drə frādārēk′ dük də lä rôshfōōkō′-lyäNkōōr′), 1747–1827, French social reformer. Before the French Revolution he established a model farm, two factories, and a trade school on his estate, and in the Constituent Assembly he urged the necessity of public welfare. A royalist during the French Revolution, he was forced to flee to England in 1792. From there he traveled to the United States where he wrote Voyage dans les États-Unis d'Amérique (1799). Upon his return to France (1799), he resumed his philanthropic activities, working especially for health, educational, and economic reforms. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Agricola, Rudolphus, 1443–85, Dutch humanist, whose real name was Roelof Huysmann. He opposed scholasticism and spread the culture of the Renaissance throughout Germany greatly influencing Erasmus and other scholars. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Age grade and age set, differentiation of social role based on age, commonly found in small-scale societies of North America and East Africa. Age sets are a type of sodality (nonresidential groups that cut across kinship ties and thus promote broader social solidarity) of young men who usually cooperate in secret ritual or craft performances together; individuals generally remain closely associated with their age set throughout their life. They are initiated into maturity and pass through age grades, the more general term denoting recognized stages of maturation that entail distinct rights and duties. Age grades may be marked by changes in biological state, such as puberty, or by socially recognized status changes such as marriage and the birth of a child. Persons of junior grade may defer to those of more senior grade who in turn teach, test, or lead their juniors. The Masai have an age-graded society. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Know-Nothing movement, in U.S. history. The increasing rate of immigration in the 1840s encouraged nativism. In Eastern cities where Roman Catholic immigrants especially had concentrated and were welcomed by the Democrats, local nativistic societies were formed to combat foreign influences and to uphold the American view. The American Republican party, formed (1843) in New York, spread into neighboring states as the Native American party, which became a national party at its Philadelphia convention in 1845. The movement was temporarily eclipsed by the Mexican War and the debates over slavery. When the slavery issue was temporarily quieted by the Compromise of 1850 nativism again came to the fore. Many secret orders grew up, of which the Order of United Americans and the Order of the Star-Spangled Banner came to be the most important. These organizations baffled political managers of the older parties, since efforts to learn something of the leaders or designs of the movement were futile; all their inquiries of supposed members were met with a statement to the effect that they knew nothing. Hence members were called Know-Nothings, although there was never a political organization bearing the name. Efforts were concentrated on electing only native-born Americans to office and on agitating for a 25-year residence qualification for citizenship. Growing rapidly, the Know-Nothings allied themselves with the group of Whigs who followed Millard Fillmore and almost captured New York state in the 1854 election, while they did sweep the polls in Massachusetts and Delaware and had local successes in other states. The disintegration of the Whig party aided them in their strides toward national influence. In 1854 they looked toward extension into the South, and in the following year they openly assumed the name American party and cast aside much of their characteristic secrecy. In June, 1855, a crisis developed; at a meeting of the national council in Philadelphia, Southerners seized control and adopted a resolution calling for the maintenance of slavery. The slavery issue, after the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act, again came to the front, and this time the slavery issue split apart the Know-Nothing movement as it had the Whigs. The antislavery men went into the newly organized Republican party. Millard Fillmore, the American party candidate for President in 1856, polled a small vote and won only the state of Maryland. The national strength of the Know-Nothing movement thus was broken. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Knights of Columbus, American Roman Catholic society for men, founded (1882) at New Haven, Conn. (where its headquarters are still located), by Father Michael J. McGivney. Its mission is to encourage fraternity and benevolence among its members, to promote tolerance, to encourage civic loyalty, and to protect the interests of the Roman Catholic Church. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Kiwanis International (kĭwä′nĭs), community service organization of active and retired business and professional people, founded in 1915 at Detroit, Mich. Local Kiwanis clubs now exist in more than 90 countries. Kiwanis clubs sponsor a wide variety of service projects, for which they raise money and members volunteer their time. The organization has also undertaken international service projects. Kiwanis International sponsors a number of service organizations for young people, including Circle K International (for college and university students) and Key Club International (for high school students). [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Kinship, relationship by blood (consanguinity) or marriage (affinity) between persons; also, in anthropology and sociology, a system of rules, based on such relationships, governing descent, inheritance, marriage, extramarital sexual relations, and sometimes residence. All societies recognize consanguineal and affinal ties between individuals, but there is great divergence in the manner of reckoning descent and relationship. Kinship patterns are so specific and elaborate that they constitute an important and independent field of anthropological and sociological investigation. In many societies the concept of kinship extends beyond family ties, which vary in breadth and inclusiveness, to less precisely defined groupings such as the clan, where consanguinity is often hypothetical if not actually mythological. As a rule, however, these groups maintain incest taboos as strict as those for close biological relatives. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Kimball, Sumner Increase, 1834–1923, organizer of the U.S. Life-Saving Service, b. Lebanon, Maine. A lawyer, he became (1871) head of the revenue marine service of the Treasury Dept., and his investigations into shipwrecks along the Atlantic coast led to a reorganization of lifesaving methods. Kimball commanded the Life-Saving Service from its inception in 1878 until it became part of the U.S. Coast Guard in 1915. He wrote Organization and Methods of the U.S. Life Saving Service (1889) and Joshua James, Life Saver (1909). [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Kelley, Florence, 1859–1932, American social worker and reformer, b. Philadelphia, grad. Cornell, 1882, and Northwestern Univ. law school, 1894. Married in 1884 to a Polish doctor, Lazare Wishnieweski, she divorced him six years later and became a Hull House resident. A confirmed socialist and active in many reforms, Kelley devoted most of her energies toward securing protective labor legislation, especially for women and children. From 1899 she served for many years as director of the National Consumer's League, which strove for industrial reform through consumer activity. Her writings include Ethical Gains through Legislation (1905) and Modern Industry (1914). [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

James, Henry, 1811–82, American student of religion and social problems, b. Albany, N.Y.; father of the philosopher William James and of the novelist Henry James. He rebelled against the strict Calvinist theology of his family and of Princeton Theological Seminary, to which he was sent, and sought a personal solution. Swedenborg's teachings opened for him a way and provided the framework for his own thought as expressed in Substance and Shadow; or, Morality and Religion in Their Relation to Life (1863), Society the Redeemed Form of Man, and the Earnest of God's Omnipotence in Human Nature (1879), and other books. He later developed a social philosophy based upon the principles of Charles Fourier. He was a close friend of many literary figures, including Ralph Waldo Emerson and Thomas Carlyle. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Adler, Felix (ăd′lər), 1851–1933, American educator and leader in social welfare, founder of the Ethical Culture movement, b. Germany. He was brought to the United States as a small child, was graduated from Columbia in 1870, and afterward studied in Germany. In 1876 he established the New York Society for Ethical Culture and, in connection with the Ethical Culture School, the first free kindergarten in New York City. Adler organized the Workingmen's Lyceum, helped to establish the Workingmen's School and the Manhattan Trade School for Girls, and founded (1883) the first child study society in the United States. He was a member (1885) of New York state's first tenement house commission and served for many years as chairman of the National Child Labor Committee. He became professor of political and social ethics at Columbia in 1902 and was Roosevelt professor (1908–9) at the Univ. of Berlin and Hibbert lecturer (1923) at Oxford. Among his books are Creed and Deed (1877), An Ethical Philosophy of Life (1918), and The Reconstruction of the Spiritual Ideal (1924). [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Howard, John, 1726–90, English prison reformer. He had great influence in improving sanitary conditions and securing humane treatment in prisons throughout Europe. He was responsible (1774) for persuading the House of Commons to enact a set of penal reform acts. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Horkheimer, Max (hôrk′hī″mər, hôr′kī″–), 1895–1973, German philosopher and sociologist. As director (1930–58) of the Institute for Social Research in Frankfurt, he played an important role in the development of critical theory and Western Marxism. In Eclipse of Reason (1947) and Dialectic of Enlightenment (1947, written with Theodor Adorno), he developed a critique of scientific positivism, whose instrumental rationality had become a form of domination in both capitalist and socialist countries. Against an older, deterministic Marxism, he argued that culture and consciousness are partly independent of economics, and his ideas about liberation and consumer society continue to influence contemporary empirical sociologists. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Hobhouse, Leonard Trelawney, 1864–1929, English philosopher, sociologist, and journalist. He taught at Oxford and at the Univ. of London. Hobhouse sought to show with evidence from anthropology and comparative psychology that the evolution of the human mind was correlated with the development of societies. A liberal, Hobhouse ardently opposed imperialism. His books include The Theory of Knowledge (1896), Morals in Evolution (1906), and Social Development (1924). [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Health and Human Services, United States Department of, federal executive department charged with administering government health programs. Successor to the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, which had been created in 1953, it was redesignated in 1979 with the creation of the Department of Education. The secretary advises the President on health and welfare matters. The department has several components. The Administration for Children and Families is responsible for Operation Head Start, the enforcement of child support laws, and programs concerning adoption, job training, and runaway youths. The Public Health Service is divided into 42 subdivisions; it carries out research on disease and health concerns through the National Institutes of Health, protects consumers from adulterated or untested foods and drugs through the Food and Drug Administration, and implements public health measures and monitors the spread of infectious diseases through the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. The Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration develops and analyzes information relating to the prevention and treatment of addictive and mental disorders. The Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services administers Medicare and Medicaid. The Social Security Administration, formerly part of the department, became an independent agency in 1995 (see social security). The Administration on Aging develops policy and programs to promote the welfare of older Americans and administers grants to states to establish community programs for them. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Head-hunting, practice of taking and preserving the head of a slain enemy. It has occurred throughout the world from ancient times into the 20th cent. In Europe, it flourished in the Balkans until the early 20th cent. The practice often has magico-religious motives. Head-hunting tribes usually believe that there is soul matter concentrated in the head; taking the head of an enemy not only adds to the totality of soul matter in one's community, it also weakens the power of the enemy. As a particularly gruesome symbol of victory, such trophies may also intimidate enemies and potential enemies. In addition, heads are secured as tokens of courage and manhood. In many societies, young men are allowed to marry only after they have taken their first head, and for each trophy they may wear a distinctive feather or special tattoo. In some parts of the world, notably among the natives of North America, the scalp alone was taken (see scalping), and the hair was often used in the making of amulets (see amulet). Heads may be mummified in various ways, as in New Guinea, where both skull and skin are preserved, or among the Jívaro of South America, where the skin alone is preserved to produce a so-called shrunken head. An increase in head-hunting and concomitant warfare is often associated with the penetration of Westerners who like to buy and collect these trophies. See also cannibalism. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Harrison, Frederic, 1831–1923, English jurist and sociologist. He served on various law commissions and was (1877–89) professor of jurisprudence and international law under the Council of Legal Education. Most prominent as the leader of English positivism, he was cofounder of, and contributor to, the Positivist Review and was president of the English Positivist Committee. Regarding positivism as an approach to social reform, he worked to obtain a broader electoral franchise, wider primary education, and beneficial labor legislation. Harrison's voluminous works include studies of the law and of literature, biographies, a novel, and a long poem. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Abbott, Grace, 1878–1939, American social worker, b. Grand Island, Nebr. She did notable work as director (1921–34) of the Child Labor Division of the U.S. Children's Bureau. The Child and the State (2 vol., 1938) is her most important publication. Her sister, Edith Abbott, 1876–1957, became dean of the School of Social Service Administration, Univ. of Chicago, in 1924. Her publications include Women in Industry (1910) and The Tenements of Chicago (1936). [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Gumplowicz, Ludwig (lōōt′vĭkh gŏm′plōvĭch), 1838–1909, Austrian sociologist, political scientist, and jurist. From 1897 to 1909 he was a professor at Graz. He held that social development rose out of conflict, first among races, then among states, then among other social groups. His theories are expressed chiefly in Der Rassenkampf [race conflict] (1883) and Grundriss der Soziologie (1885, tr. The Outlines of Sociology, 1899). [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Grocyn, William (grō′sĭn), 1446?–1519, English humanist. An associate of John Colet and Thomas Linacre, he reputedly introduced the teaching of Greek at Oxford. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Goffman, Erving, 1922–82, American sociologist, b. Manville, Alta. His field research in the Shetland Islands resulted in The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (1956), which analyzes interpersonal relations by discussing the active processes by which people make and manage their social roles. Using metaphors of the stage (dramaturgy), Goffman describes how ordinary individuals give performances, control their scripts, and enter settings that make up their lives. This active notion of role is often associated with the symbolist interactionist school of George Herbert Mead, which argues that humans manipulate social situations by selecting appropriate roles and by maintaining some distance from these roles. Goffman later studied deviance and the total institution in Asylums (1961); he later returned to patterns of communication in Frame Analysis (1974) and Forms of Talk (1981). Widely recognized for his distinctive writing style, he served as president of the American Sociological Association in 1981. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Ghost town, term for any once flourishing American community that has been abandoned, generally for economic reasons. While most of the towns have little or no population, they often contain old buildings, which may serve as tourist attractions. Many, such as Virginia City, Nev., were gold-mining towns hastily built during a boom. When the gold strike ended, the itinerant prospectors left. Ranking with the largest and most interesting Western ghost towns are Silver City, Idaho; Elkhorn, Mont.; Bodie, Calif.; and St. Elmo, Colo. Other ghost towns were former milling centers, railroad connections, or oil-well communities. In Texas several ghost towns were originally settled by European exiles who emigrated to the United States following the 1848 revolutions. Some, such as Burning Bush, Tex., were religious havens. Many deserted areas of towns have been restored to their original appearance; notable examples are Denver, Colo., Mystic, Conn., Williamsburg, Va., and Harpers Ferry, W.Va. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

George Junior Republic, any of several communities founded by the American philanthropist William Reuben George (1866–1936) for neglected and maladjusted adolescents. The first (1895) was at Freeville, N.Y. The communities were miniature republics modeled after adult society, which the members (13–18 years old) assisted in running. All had to work on the farm or in the community's industries. Schooling was provided. Now run on a more typical institutional model, the remaining George Junior Republics retain the emphasis on work experience and schooling for delinquent and troubled boys. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Generation of '98, Spanish literary and cultural movement in the first two decades of the 20th cent. It was so named by Azorín (see Martínez Ruiz, José) in 1913 to designate a group of young writers who, in the face of defeat (1898) in the Spanish-American War, proclaimed a moral and cultural rebirth for Spain. Azorín's original list included Valle Inclán, Unamuno, Benavente y Martínez, Baroja y Nessi, Ramiro de Maeztu, Darío, and Azorín himself. It has since been emended to include Ganivet and Antonio Machado, as well as Ortega y Gasset, Pérez de Ayala, and Marañón. Darío is more often considered as the founder of modernismo. The group was concerned with defining the essential quality of Spain, studying its history and culture. In the austere life of Castile many of them discovered the key to the essence of Hispanicism. While they attacked aestheticism and the current adulation of the Austrian satiric poet Karl Kraus, they also represented cosmopolitan trends, including political liberalism. They greatly influenced the work of later Spanish writers. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Geddes, Sir Patrick (gĕd′ĭs), 1854–1932, Scottish biologist and sociologist, distinguished especially in town planning. He received his biological training in T. H. Huxley's laboratory; from the beginning he was interested in relating biological knowledge to civic welfare. His conviction of the importance of environment led to the organization of University Hall in Edinburgh as a center of student life and to his plan for the reconstruction of Edinburgh, with the eventual elimination of slums. He was selected by Zionist leaders to design the Hebrew Univ. building at Jerusalem and to plan the enlargement of the city. In biology, Geddes was an authority on the evolution of sex, collaborating with Sir J. Arthur Thomson in several works on the subject. Other books by Geddes include City Development (1904) and Cities in Evolution (1915). Geddes held professorships at Edinburgh, London, Aberdeen, St. Andrews, and Bombay (now Mumbai) and at his death was director of the Scots College, Montpellier, France. He was knighted in 1932. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]