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The inferior alveolar nerve block (IANB) procedure delivers anesthetics to the pterygomandibular space through which the lingual nerve (LN) and inferior alveolar nerve (IAN) travel. Injury to the LN has been reported more often than injury to the IAN. However, the number of anatomical studies of LN injury is limited. We aimed to establish evidence by investigating LN and IAN anatomy at the level of the mandibular foramen (MF). Forty-four sides from 22 Caucasian cadaveric heads (16 fresh-frozen and six formalin-fixed cadavers) were used in this study. The LN and IAN were laterally dissected, and the diameter and the distance between the two nerves were measured at the level of the MF. The mean diameters of the LN and IAN were 2.57 mm and 2.53 mm in fresh-frozen specimens and 2.97 mm and 2.93 mm in formalin-fixed specimens, respectively. The mean diameters of the LN and IAN in all the specimens were 2.65 mm and 2.64 mm. The distance between the posterior edge of the LN and anterior edge of the IAN at the level of the MF ranged from 1.62 to 8.36 mm with a mean of 5.33 ± 1.88 mm. These findings could elucidate the risk of LN injury during the IANB procedure., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Compression of the radial nerve is most commonly described at the supinator muscle (i.e., arcade of Frohse). However, radial nerve compression can occur in the arm. Therefore, the purpose of this article is to review both etiologies of radial nerve entrapment and the sites at which this can occur in the arm. The clinical presentation of radial nerve entrapment in the arm and how it differs from that of entrapment at other sites is reviewed and the conditions potentially predisposing to nerve entrapment are described. Particular attention is paid to the nerve's course and potential variants of the anatomical structures in the arm. In each case, the recommended course of management for the neuropathy is described. Injury of the radial nerve can arise from a varied set of pathologies including trauma, tumors, anomalous muscles, and intramuscular injections. Physicians should have a good working knowledge of the anatomy and potential mechanisms for radial nerve injury., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Objective Since the extreme lateral lumbar interbody fusion procedure was first reported by Ozgur in 2006, a large number of clinical studies have been published. Anatomical studies which explore methods to avoid visceral structures, such as the kidney, with this approach have not been examined in detail. We dissected the retroperitoneal space to analyze how the extreme lateral transpsoas approach to the lumbar spine could damage the kidney and related structures. Methods Eight sides from four fresh Caucasian cadavers were used for this study. The latissimus dorsi muscle and the thoracolumbar fascia were dissected to open the retroperitoneum. The fat tissue was removed. Steel wires were then put into the intervertebral disc spaces. Finally, the closest distance between kidney and wires on each interdiscal space was measured. Results The closest distance from the wire in the interdiscal space on L1/2, L2/3 and L3/4 to the kidney ranged from 13.2 mm to 32.9 mm, 20.0 mm to 27.7 mm, and 20.5 mm to 46.6 mm, respectively. The distance from the kidney to the interdiscal space at L4/5 was too great to be considered applicable to this study. Conclusions The results of this study might help surgeons better recognize the proximity of the kidney and avoid injury to it during the extreme lateral transpsoas approach to the lumbar spine., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Winged scapula is caused by paralysis of the serratus anterior or trapezius muscles due to damage to the long thoracic or accessory nerves, resulting in loss of strength and range of motion of the shoulder. Because this nerve damage can happen in a variety of ways, initial diagnosis may be overlooked. This paper discusses the anatomical structures involved in several variations of winged scapula, the pathogenesis of winged scapula, and several historical and contemporary surgical procedures used to treat this condition. Additionally, this review builds upon the conclusions of several studies in order to suggest areas for continued research regarding the treatment of winged scapula., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

This paper, although not an exhaustive review of "false" ligaments in the body, describes eight such ligaments. False ligaments are defined as ligamentous structures connecting separate parts of the same bone and are thus immobile. The ligaments reviewed include the suprascapular ligament, the transforaminal lumbar ligaments, the mamillo-accessory ligament, the transverse atlantal ligament, the transverse occipital ligament, the transverse humeral ligament, the coracoacromial ligament, and the transverse part of the ulnar collateral ligament. In this review, the anatomy and histological characteristics of each ligament are reviewed. Furthermore, possible functions and associated pathologies are described., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.