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Thyroid nodule is an abnormal growth of thyroid cells that form a lump in the thyroid gland. The prevalence rate is dependent on the mode of diagnosis and increases with use of ultrasound. A thyroid nodule may be either single or multiple and the majority are asymptomatic and benign in nature. The clinical features of thyrotoxicosis are seen in those with a toxic thyroid nodule. Thyroid ultrasound is the imaging of choice for assessing the location, numbers, and size of the thyroid nodules and also the background of thyroid parenchyma. Ultrasound elastography, fine needle aspiration biopsy and molecular tests further aid in diagnosis and planning of treatment. Surgical excision is the therapeutic intervention of choice.

Hypoglycemia is a condition characterized by an abnormally low level of blood glucose and has significant clinical consequences if left untreated. It is a potential adverse event in the treatment of diabetes mellitus. Causes of hypoglycemia are varied, but in diabetic patients, it is most often iatrogenic. Medication changes or overdoses, infection, dietary changes, and changes in activity levels are some of the important reasons for a person to develop hypoglycemia. Prompt diagnosis and treatment of hypoglycemia is an essential component of the management of diabetes. Evaluation of the cause is important, especially if there are recurrent episodes of hypoglycemia.

Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is a severe threat to maternal and child health. It is associated complications adversely affect the mother and the child. One in seven births is affected by gestational diabetes. Lifestyle intervention has a positive impact on glycemic control and pregnancy outcomes of GDM. Adequate nutrition during pregnancy ensures good health for the mother and the growing fetus. There is an increased need for calories, proteins and vitamins, and minerals to meet the demands of increased metabolic activity during this period. The composition of each meal is crucial in attaining glycemic control. A low-carbohydrate diet (60%–65%) with adequate proteins (15%) and fats (20%–25%) is beneficial in attaining acceptable postprandial sugars. “My Plate Planner” is a simple method for remembering the type and quantity of food to be consumed with each meal. Regularity of meals with frequent snacking of healthy foods ensures acceptable glucose homeostasis throughout the day.

Insulin therapy is the cornerstone of treatment in patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus (DM) and advanced type 2 DM. Over the years, insulin treatment has advanced from animal insulin to recombinant insulin with more efficiency and fewer side effects and from short-acting conventional insulin to ultrashort and long-acting insulin analogs to mimic various phases of physiological insulin secretion. Various insulin delivery systems from conventional subcutaneous insulin injection using insulin syringe to pen device, subcutaneous insulin infusion pumps, and inhaled insulin to artificial pancreas are now available. Proper insulin injecting techniques and patient education on self-monitoring of blood glucose and insulin dose titration are of utmost importance for effective insulin therapy.

Oral anti-diabetic agents form an important therapeutic strategy in the management of diabetes, after lifestyle modification. There are several new agents available, like dipeptidyl peptidase 4 (DPP4) inhibitors and sodium- glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors have been approved for use as monotherapy when diet and exercise are inadequate and when metformin is not tolerated, and can also be utilized as an add on to other glucose-lowering agents, including insulin. The therapeutic, pharmacokinetic and safety profiles of these agents are different from the older agents. Hydroxychloroquine (hcq) and bromocriptine have been recently cleared for use and show beneficial effects in control of blood glucose and HbA1C levels.