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Seismological observations show that many destructive earthquakes nucleate within, or propagate through, thick sequences of carbonates and evaporites. For example, along the Apennines range (Italy) carbonate and evaporite sequences are present at hypocentral depths for recent major earthquakes (5.0

Abstract: Earthquakes are sensitive to the along-strike segmentation of the faults they break, especially in their initiation, propagation and arrest. We examine that segmentation and search whether it shows any specific properties. We focus on the largest-scale fault segmentation which controls the largest earthquakes. It is well established that major segments within faults markedly shape their surface cumulative slip-length profiles; segments appear as large slip bumps separated by narrow, pronounced slip troughs (inter-segments). We use that property to examine the distribution (location, number, length) of the major segments in 927 active normal faults in Afar (East Africa) of various lengths (0.3–65km), cumulative slips (1–1300m), slip rates (0.5–5mm/yr), and ages (104–106 yr). This is the largest fault population ever analyzed. To identify the major bumps in the slip profiles and determine their number, location and length, we analyze the profiles using both the classical Fourier transform and a space–frequency representation of the profiles, the S-transform, which is well adapted for characterizing local spectral properties. Our work reveals the following results: irrespective of their length, 70% of the slip profiles have a triangular envelope shape, in conflict with the elastic crack concept. Irrespective of their length, the majority of the faults (at least 50–70%) have a limited number of major segments, between 2 and 5 and more commonly equal to 3–5. The largest-scale segmentation of the faults is thus self-similar and likely to be controlled by the fault mechanics. The slip deficits at the major inter-segment slip troughs tend to smooth as the faults accumulate more slip resulting in increased connection of the major segments. The faults having accumulated more slip therefore generally appear as un-segmented (10–30%). Our observations therefore show that, whatever the fault on which they initiate, large earthquakes face the same number of major segments to potentially break. The number of segments that they eventually break seems to depend on the slip history (structural maturity) of the fault. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Strain localization has important implications for the mechanical strength and stability of evolving fault zones. Structural fabrics interpreted as strain localization textures are common in natural and laboratory faults, however, the dynamic microscale processes controlling localization (and delocalization) are difficult to observe directly. Discrete numerical models of faulting allow a degree of dynamic visualization at the grain scale not easily afforded in nature. When combined with laboratory validation experiments and field observations, they become a powerful tool for investigating the dynamics of fault zone evolution. We present a method that implements realistic gouge evolution in 3D simulations of granular shear. The particle based model includes breakable bonds between individual particles allowing fracture of aggregate grains that are composed of many bonded particles. During faulting simulations, particle motions and interactions as well as the mechanical behavior of the entire system are continuously monitored. We show that a model fault gouge initially characterized by mono-disperse spherical aggregate grains gradually evolves, with accumulated strain, to a wide size distribution. The comminution process yields a highly heterogeneous textural signature that is qualitatively comparable to natural and laboratory produced fault gouges. Mechanical behavior is comparable to a first order with relevant laboratory data. Simulations also reveal a strong correlation between regions of enhanced grain size reduction and localized strain. Thus in addition to producing realistic fault gouge textures, the model offers the possibility to explore direct links between strain partitioning and structural development in fault zones. This could permit investigation of subtle interactions between high and low strain regions that may trigger localization–delocalization events and therefore control macroscopic frictional stability and hence the seismic potential of evolving fault zones. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: We attempt to reconcile current understanding of the earthquake energy balance with recent estimates of fracture energy from seismological investigations and surface energy from geological observations. The complex structure of real fault zones suggests that earthquakes in such fault structures are dominated by scale-dependent processes. We present a model for an inelastic fault zone of finite thickness embedded in an elastic crust represented at a macroscopic scale by a mathematical plane of zero thickness. The constitutive properties of the fault zone are governed by physical processes controlling gouge and damage evolution at meso- and micro-scale. However, in order to model and interpret seismological observations, we represent dynamic fault weakening at the macroscopic scale in terms of traction evolution as a function of slip and other internal variables defining a phenomenological friction or contact law on the virtual mathematical plane. This contact law is designed to capture the main features of dynamic fault weakening during earthquake rupture. In this study we assume that total shear traction is friction and corresponds to shear resistance of the whole fault zone. We show that seismological observations, depending on finite and limited wavelength and frequency bandwidth, can only provide an estimate of breakdown stress drop and breakdown work (a more general definition of seismological fracture energy) representing a lower bound of the total intrinsic power of dissipation on the fault zone. We emphasize that geological estimates of surface energy can be compared with seismological estimates of breakdown work only if they are representative of the same macroscopic scale. In this case, it emerges that, contrary to surface energy, seismological breakdown work represents a non-negligible contribution to the earthquake energy budget. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Active faults often contain distinct accumulations of granular wear material. During shear, this granular material accommodates stress and strain in a heterogeneous manner that may influence fault stability. We present new work to visualize the nature of contact force distributions during 3D granular shear. Our 3D discrete numerical models consist of granular layers subjected to normal loading and direct shear, where gouge particles are simulated by individual spheres interacting at points of contact according to simple laws. During shear, we observe the transient microscopic processes and resulting macroscopic mechanical behavior that emerge from interactions of thousands of particles. We track particle translations and contact forces to determine the nature of internal stress accommodation with accumulated slip for different initial configurations. We view model outputs using novel 3D visualization techniques. Our results highlight the prevalence of transient directed contact force networks that preferentially transmit enhanced stresses across our granular layers. We demonstrate that particle size distribution (psd) controls the nature of the force networks. Models having a narrow (i.e. relatively uniform) psd exhibit discrete pipe-like force clusters with a dominant and focussed orientation oblique to but in the plane of shear. Wider psd models (e.g. power law size distributions D =2.6) also show a directed contact force network oblique to shear but enjoy a wider range of orientations and show more out-of-plane linkages perpendicular to shear. Macroscopic friction level, is insensitive to these distinct force network morphologies, however, force network evolution appears to be linked to fluctuations in macroscopic friction. Our results are consistent with predictions, based on recent laboratory observations, that force network morphologies are sensitive to grain characteristics such as particle size distribution of a sheared granular layer. Our numerical approach offers the potential to investigate correlations between contact force geometry, evolution and resulting macroscopic friction, thus allowing us to explore ideas that heterogeneous force distributions in gouge material may exert an important control on fault stability and hence the seismic potential of active faults. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Inherent to black-coal mining in New South Wales (Australia) since 1801, the discharge of ground water may have triggered the M5.6 Newcastle earthquake in 1989. 4-dimensional geomechanical model simulations reveal that widespread water removal and coal as deep as a 500 m depth resulted in an unload of the Earth''s crust. This unload caused a destabilization process of the pre-existing Newcastle fault in the interior of the crust beneath the Newcastle coal field. In tandem, an increase in shear stress and a decrease in normal stress may have reactivated this reverse fault. Over the course of the last fifty years, elevated levels of lithostatic stress alterations have accelerated. In 1991, based on the modeling of the crust''s elastostatic response to the unload, there has been the minimal critical shear stress changes of 0.01 Mega Pascal (0.1 bar) that reached the Newcastle fault at a depth where the 1989 mainshock nucleated. Hence, it can be anticipated that other faults might also be critically stressed in that region for a couple of reasons. First, the size of the area (volume) that is affected by the induced stress changes is larger than the ruptured area of the Newcastle fault. Second, the seismic moment magnitude of the 1989 M5.6 Newcastle earthquake is associated with only a fraction of mass removal (1 of 55), following McGarr''s mass-moment relationship. Lastly, these findings confirm ongoing seismicity in the Newcastle region since the beginning of the 19th century after a dormant period of 10,000 years of no seismicity. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Physical and chemical fluid–rock interactions are implicated in controlling earthquake nucleation and recurrence. In particular, interseismic compaction, sealing and healing of fractured fault rocks can lead to strength recovery and stabilisation of fault zones. In contrast, these same processes can also assist increases in pore fluid pressures and consequent destabilisation of faults. Here, we present high-temperature, hydrothermal experiments designed to assess the evolution of strength of fault zones in previously intact rock, and also characterise the associated changes to porosity and permeability. Cores of Fontainebleau sandstone were initially loaded to failure in a high-pressure gas–medium apparatus. The failed specimens were then hydrothermally reacted at 927°C for variable duration under isostatic conditions, and subsequently re-fractured to determine the ‘interseismic’ strength recovery. In the most extreme case, hydrothermally induced gouge compaction, cementation and crack healing resulted in 75% strength recovery after reaction for 6 h. Isostatic hydrothermal treatment also resulted in dramatic reduction in porosity and permeability. Strength of the fault zone following hydrothermal reaction appears to be closely correlated to porosity, consistent with previous studies on brittle failure of porous aggregates. The experimental results show how hydrothermal reactions in fault zones may lead to two competing, time-dependent effects; fault strengthening due to increased cohesion in the fault zone and fault weakening arising from elevated pore pressures within a well cemented, low-permeability gouge layer. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

An active fault zone is home to a plethora of complex structural and geometric features that are expected to affect earthquake rupture nucleation, propagation, and arrest, as well as interseismic deformation. Simulations of these complexities have been largely done using continuum plasticity or scalar damage theories. In this paper, we use a highly efficient novel hybrid finite element-spectral boundary integral equation scheme to investigate the dynamics of fault zones with small scale pre-existing branches as a first step towards explicit representation of anisotropic damage features in fault zones. The hybrid computational scheme enables exact near-field truncation of the elastodynamic field allowing us to use high resolution finite element discretization in a narrow region surrounding the fault zone that encompasses the small scale branches while remaining computationally efficient. Our results suggest that the small scale branches may influence the rupture in ways that may not be realizable in homogenized continuum models. Specifically, we show that these short secondary branches significantly affect the post event stress state on the main fault leading to strong heterogeneities in both normal and shear stresses and also contribute to the enhanced generation of high frequency radiation. The secondary branches also affect off-fault plastic strain distribution and suggest that co-seismic inelasticity is sensitive to pre-existing damage features. We discuss our results in the larger context of the need for modeling earthquake ruptures with high resolution fault zone physics. • The secondary faults increase total energy dissipation. • The secondary faults lead to heterogeneous stress field on the main fault. • The secondary faults promote high frequency generation. • The secondary faults promote normal undulation on the main fault. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]