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This paper empirically explores the linkage between the economic opportunities and climate adaptation and other antecedents in cities. Our dependent variable includes the economic opportunities identified by the cities; our independent variables are the adaptation plans, adaptation actions, climate change risks, incentive types, and incentivized stakeholders. To explore the effects of climate change risks, adaptation plans, adaptation actions, incentive types, and incentivized stakeholders, we used polychoric factor analysis and logistic regression analysis. The results show that a city's climate change adaptation plan and GDP have significant positive relationships with the economic opportunities present in the cities. Meanwhile, climate change risks also have a positive relationship with economic opportunities. Furthermore, economic opportunities present in cities have a negative relationship with three variables: one group of climate actions and two groups of stakeholders. This paper also further discusses the possible effects of incentives in the case of climate change in cities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper analyzes the effect of inherent uncertainty on the willingness-to-pay (WTP) for a policy aimed at reducing expected climate change impacts. To do this, it relates outcome uncertainty to the probability of occurrence of one of these impacts within a given time horizon. Unlike the existing studies, this paper links outcome uncertainty to the uncontrollable component of environmental uncertainty derived from the stochastic nature of an ecosystem's behavior. Results show that the WTP for the policy in the presence of uncertainty does not decrease compared to the scenario where climate change impacts are assumed to occur with certainty. This suggests individuals are adopting a precautionary attitude when stating their WTP. Thus, the paper provides economic justification for preventive measures in highly uncertain contexts. However, findings are not conclusive with respect to the influence of the degree of uncertainty on the support for such measures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change economics is now four decades old. Much of what it has achieved as a field of academic enquiry can be linked back to issues of integrated assessment modelling. This paper shows that the standard approach is going through a major change in scope as of the last five years. The conventional focus on determining optimal mitigation paths based on modelling the social cost of carbon is being enlarged to embrace promising new waves of research. These are: (1) the economics of insurance against catastrophic risks; (2) the economics of trade and climate; and (3) the economics of climate change adaptation. The paper helps to bridge the gap between economics and climate policy by showing that the analytical toolkit of climate change economics has shifted towards more realistic representations of climatic policy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Blue carbon – the carbon stored and sequestered in mangrove forests, seagrass meadows, and tidal salt marshes – is considered a cost-effective means to achieve positive climate change mitigation and adaptation outcomes. Blue carbon is therefore of considerable interest to the scientific and policy communities, and is frequently discussed in relation to carbon markets and climate finance opportunities. This paper identifies peer-reviewed and ‘gray literature’ documents that discuss blue carbon in the context of finance and market mechanisms. The document set is analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively, and the principal scientific, economic, regulatory, social, and management issues that emerge are discussed. The study reveals that (1) the blue carbon literature is dominated by technical and policy commentary, with a dearth of research into practical social considerations and a stark absence of private sector perspectives; (2) there is confusion over the nature and role of important concepts including private and public sector finance and instruments; and (3) understanding of the important issues of investment priorities and risk considerations is also limited. This paper therefore identifies gaps in the blue carbon literature, clarifies critical concepts and issues, and proposes novel pathways for blue carbon research and project development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This paper investigates ecological threshold and ecological economic threshold by developing an ecological economic model—an extension of a population–resource dynamics model developed by Brander and Taylor (1998). The model reflects three critical issues regarding an ecological economic system: system boundary, non-convexity, and adaptation. The paper elucidates six main findings: ecological economic threshold may come before ecological threshold; the ecological economic threshold may exhibit a highly context-dependent and dynamic nature, which suggests the precautionary principle; markets do not respond sufficiently to maintain resiliency under an external shock as prices do not reflect thresholds; the system can be restored by intervention, even after crossing the ecological economic threshold; various transitional paths are possible in restoring the system; and adaptation affects resilience to a somewhat significant effect which suggests the importance of better information and education. Because of the complexity of the model, I adopt a system dynamics approach for the development and analysis of the model. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract This paper deals with fishery management in the face of the ecological and economic effects of global warming. To achieve this, a dynamic bioeconomic model and model-based scenarios are considered, in which the stock's growth function depends on the sea surface temperature. The model is empirically calibrated for the French Guiana shrimp fishery using time series collected over the period 1993–2009. Three fishing effort strategies are then compared under two contrasted IPCC climate scenarios (RCP 8.5 and RCP 2.6). A first harvesting strategy maintains the Status Quo in terms of fishing effort. A more ecologically-oriented strategy based on the closure of the fishery is also considered. A third strategy, which relates to Maximum Economic Yield (MEY), is based on the optimisation of the net present value derived from fishing. The results first show that ‘Status Quo’ fishing intensity combined with global warming leads to the collapse of the fishery in the long run. Secondly, it turns out that the Closure strategy preserves stock viability especially under the optimistic climate scenario. Thirdly, the MEY strategy makes it possible to satisfy bioeconomic performances requirements with positive stock and profit, once again, especially under the optimistic warming scenario. Consequently, MEY emerges as a relevant bioeconomic strategy in terms of adaptation to climate change but only in connection with climate change mitigation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Adaptation to water scarcity induced by future climate change will be crucial for the viability of agricultural economies in many areas of the world. In this paper, we study the acquisition of supplemental irrigation water rights as an adaptation strategy undertaken by irrigation-dependent farmers in response to historical climate change. By exploiting the panel structure of a unique dataset of farm-level supplemental right adoption decisions in the state of Oregon, we establish a relationship between climate conditions, competition for local water resources, and the acquisition of supplemental rights. Our results indicate that a warmer, drier climate increases the likelihood that irrigated farms acquire supplemental rights, suggesting that farmers in Oregon have used supplemental rights to adapt to historical climate change. We also find evidence of heterogeneous effects suggesting that junior irrigators, groundwater-dependent irrigators, and farmers with access to a relatively lower volume of water have been most affected by historical climate change with respect to their supplemental water right acquisition decisions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change and its consequences present one of the most important threats to biodiversity and the functions of ecosystems. The stress on biodiversity is far beyond the levels imposed by the natural global climatic changes occurring in the recent evolutionary past. It includes temperature increases, shifts of climate zones, melting of snow and ice, sea level rise, droughts, floods, and other extreme weather events. Natural systems are vulnerable to such changes due to their limited adaptive capacity. Based on an analysis using the DPSIR framework, this paper discusses some of the important socio-economic driving forces of climate change, with a focus on energy use and transportation. The paper also analyses observed and potential changes of climate and the pressures they exert on biodiversity, the changes in biodiversity, the resulting impacts on ecosystem functions, and possible policy responses. The latter can be divided into mitigation and adaptation measures. Both strategies are needed, mitigation in order to stabilise the greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere, and adaptation in order to adjust to changes that have already occurred or cannot be avoided. One mitigation option, increased biofuel production, which is also a response to oil depletion, would change land use patterns and increase human appropriation of net primary production of biomass, thereby threatening biodiversity. By considering the first order and second order impacts of climate change on biodiversity when developing policy measures, it will be possible to integrate ecosystem and biodiversity protection into decision-making processes. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper examines the economic impact of climate change on livestock production in Kenya. We estimate a Ricardian model of net livestock incomes and further estimate the marginal impacts of climate change. We also simulate the impact of different climate scenarios on livestock incomes. The Ricardian results show that livestock production in Kenya is highly sensitive to climate change and that there is a non-linear relationship between climate change and livestock productivity. The estimated marginal impacts suggest modest gains from rising temperatures and losses from increased precipitation. The predictions from atmospheric ocean general circulation models suggest that livestock farmers in Kenya are likely to incur heavy losses from global warming. The highest and lowest losses are predicted from the Hadley Centre Coupled model (HADCM) and Parallel Climate Model (PCM) respectively, based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change A2 Special Report on Emissions Scenarios. The paper concludes that in the long term, climate change is likely to lead to increased poverty, vulnerability and loss of livelihoods. Several policy interventions are recommended to counter this impact. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Interaction between mitigation and adaptation is a key question for the design of climate policies. In this paper, we study how land use adaptation to climate change impacts land use competition in the agriculture, forest and other land use (AFOLU) sector and how a mitigation policy in agriculture might affect this competition. We use for this purpose two sector-specific bio-economic models of agriculture and forest combined with an econometric land use shares model to simulate the impacts of two climate change scenarios (A2 and B1, 2100 horizon), and a greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture policy consisting of a tax of between 0 and 200 €/tCO 2 equivalent. Our results show that both climate change scenarios lead to an increase in the area devoted to agriculture at the expense of forest which could have a negative impact on reducing greenhouse gas emissions responsible for climate change. The mitigation policy would curtail agricultural expansion, and thus could counteract the effects of land use adaptation to climate change. In other words, accounting for land use competition results in a reduction of the abatement costs of the mitigation policy in the agricultural sector. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ambitious goals to limit global warming can only be reached with a broad acceptance and participation of the general public. This paper relies on surveys among citizens in China, Germany and the U.S. and investigates the determinants of the acceptance of national and international adaptation and mitigation efforts. The empirical findings indicate that specific beliefs and environmental awareness are important drivers in all three countries, while political attitudes and socio-economic characteristics are the main sources of cross-country heterogeneity. The study thereby points at important starting points and target groups for raising the acceptance of national and international climate policy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper explores the factors that influence farmers' decision-making in adopting climate change adaptation strategies and how these adaptations impact on farm yields. We employ a simultaneous equations model to investigate the differential effects of adaptation on adapters and non-adapters. An endogenous switching mechanism is employed to account for selectivity bias. Based on a survey of 422 rice farmers in Nepal, our results show that farmers' education, access to credit and extension services, experience with climate change impacts such as drought and flood, information on climate change issues, belief in climate change and the need to adapt all variously determine their decision-making. We find that the adaptation strategies employed by farmers significantly increase rice yields. Furthermore, results indicate that both adapters and non-adapters would benefit from the adaptation of the identified strategies. This study, therefore, provides supportive evidence for policy makers to take into consideration farmers' existing knowledge and skills in adapting to climate change. The findings show that it is imperative to involve farmers in climate change adaptation planning processes if the full benefits of such policy action are to be realized. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Attempts to analyze the effect of weather shocks on livestock production have been carried out using integrated assessment models (IAMs) or the cross-sectional (Ricardian) method. However, these methodologies are fraught with obvious shortcomings, such as omitted variable bias, amongst others. This paper, therefore, re-examines the relationship between weather changes and global livestock production using an established econometric strategy that takes care of the pitfalls inherent in the conventional approaches. Using country-level data and a variety of specifications, we find that a 1 °C increase in temperature will lead to a 9.7% reduction in global beef production on average. These adverse effects are amplified in hot, poor, and agriculture-dependent countries. Besides, we find that a marginal increase in annual precipitation would lead to a 2.1% increase in beef production in tropical countries but a 1.9% decrease in temperate ones. Also, our forecasts show that climate change will reduce animal output by a further 20% in the mid-century and an additional 40% by the end of the century assuming no adaptation other than the degree of adaptation observed in the historical period. • Temperature and precipitation affect global livestock production nonlinearly • The effect of warming is amplified in hot, poor, and agriculture-dependent countries • Rise in rainfall appears to be more favorable to livestock production in the tropics • Future weather projections suggest a further drop in global livestock production [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper explores how farmers adapt to salinity and waterlogging conditions by selecting crops. In this context, this study identifies salinity and waterlogging tolerant crops essential for the sustained livelihood of crop farmers. We developed a multinomial logit model and a cost-benefit analysis for assessing the effectiveness of farmers' selection of crops. Estimating the regression model across 1380 farmers in Koyra Upazila, we find that households' socio-economic-demographic characteristics are important contributors to crop selection. Access to market information, the optimal fertilizer dose, an early warning system, social mobilization, training, credit facilities, farming experience, wage labor, pest control, weed control, and land tenure status are all important factors in crop selection. This study suggests that farmers in this Upazila can cultivate hybrid sunflower, mustard seed, cotton, maize, and wheat in salinity affected farms in dryer locations. Likewise, they can also cultivate Aman paddy in water salinity and waterlogging affected farms. Prediction of the impact of salinity and waterlogging on net revenue must highlight not only changes in yields per crop but also crop selection and switching. • Changes in the frequency of extreme events are important for yield, stability and quality. • Agro-ecosystems are destroyed by catastrophic or devastating natural hazards. • The incidence of salinity and waterlogging directly affect the farmer in resource allocation. • Crop selection as climate change adaptation is a useful technique for better agrarian society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper evaluates economic and environmental effects of two incentive-based water management policies to address climate change impacts on irrigated agriculture: water markets and irrigation subsidies. A Southern European case study assesses farmers' long and short-run adaptation responses under climate change and policy interventions with a discrete stochastic programming model. Results indicate that climate change will likely have negative impacts on irrigation activities and water-dependent ecosystems in Southern Europe. However, the severity of impacts depends on government policy settings and farmers' adaptation responses. The comparison between water market and irrigation subsidy policies shows the advantages of water markets over irrigation subsidies in terms of both private and social benefits. These findings could guide policymakers on the design of efficient water institutions and policies to address climate change in the irrigated agriculture of Southern Europe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Shrimp aquaculture is among the most vital sectors in the Mekong Delta of Vietnam regarding economic well-being, social aspects, and food security beyond the country boundary. Nevertheless, this sector has faced emerging challenges from increased climate variability during recent decades, negatively influencing its outcomes. This paper utilized farm-level data surveyed in 2019 to investigate the mechanisms behind households' decisions to adopt three primary climate change adaptation practices: upgrading pond dikes, lining ponds with plastic sheets, and having settling ponds. This study demonstrates the effects of adopting these strategies on shrimp farming performance. An endogenous switching regression model was employed to deal with potential selection bias and heterogeneity in the decision to adopt or not. We find that the adoption of upgrading pond dikes and having a settling pond result in higher productivity in shrimp farming, and both adopters and non-adopters of these strategies would benefit from the adaptation. As well, education of the farm operators and farmers' belief on changes in climatic conditions and their impacts on shrimp farming are the main drivers behind the adoption behavior. This study, therefore, provides empirical evidence for policymakers to promote specific climate change adaptation strategies that would improve the welfare of shrimp farmers. • Shrimp farmers' decision-making in climate change adaptation in the Mekong delta. • Education and climate belief are crucial factors of the adoption process. • Sizable effects on output stem from different primary adaptation practices. • Adaptation practices would benefit both adopters and non-adopters. • Adoption of the adaptation strategies positively links to shrimp productivity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ugandan territory is a challenging environment for agriculture due to extreme climate events. These are likely to harm the development of rural communities. Crop diversification and off-farm activities are considered potential adaptation strategies to reduce the impacts of climate risk. This paper explores three main issues. The first one is the frequency and the intensity of climate shocks that push households to diversify their portfolio of livelihood options. The second one is about the market and the institutional factors that enhance the context where farmers can effectively diversify against adverse climate events. The last issue concerns the mix of crop and income diversification that minimises the welfare variability and the downside risk. To address these points, the study exploits four rounds of the Ugandan National Panel Survey and the SPEI climatic index to estimate a panel multinomial endogenous switching model. Results demonstrate that farmers' diversification response to the climate shocks is not linear. Moreover, the empirical analysis shows that a medium crop diversification maximises mean welfare, while a mix of high crop and income diversification generates the largest impact on the downside risk reduction. Social and human capital are crucial to improve the chance of an effective diversification-based adaptation. • Diversification of crop species and off-farm income sources can help rural farmers mitigating adverse climatic events. • A Panel multinomial endogenous switching model is estimated with socioeconomic and climate shocks data in Uganda. • Farmers diversify if with high frequencies of past shocks in the mid--run, while they prefer specialisation in the shortrun. • Medium diversification improves the average welfare; high diversification insures against risk and extreme welfare losses. • Social capital is crucial to enhance the effectiveness of diversification strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This paper describes how forest-dependent communities in the Peruvian Amazon responded to forest policy changes meant to improve sustainability. These new laws emphasized block-based, collectivized extraction — a strategy incompatible with local communities' logging traditions and technical capacity. Field surveys before and after the policy change revealed a drastic reduction in local logging activities for households at all income levels. Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) subsequently became more important to household cash incomes. However, only some households were able to shift to a more intensive and far-ranging pattern of NTFP harvest, particularly households with boats and motors. Others lost income from both logging and NTFP extraction because for many households, these income sources were interdependent. An increasing Gini coefficient signals potentially escalating household income inequality. Key lessons for biodiversity and forest–carbon interventions in tropical forests include 1) regulations designed to control large-scale extraction can lead to unnecessarily restricted access for small-scale extractors, and 2) potential shifts in extractive pressure should be taken into account when access to forest resources is curtailed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Air pollution constitutes one of the main environmental problems in many countries. This paper uses the life satisfaction approach to environmental valuation (LSA) to investigate whether individuals habituate to air pollution and if a potential habituation effect influences the marginal rate of substitution between air quality and income. My estimation results, based on a data set of 48 countries spanning the period 1990 to 2006, indicate that individuals do not habituate to pollution with particulate matter. Rather, I find that even past pollution levels reduce current utility. This effect tends to increase the value of pollution abatement. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This paper examines how South American farmers'' choices of livestock species vary across the range of climate and in turn infer from them as to what would happen under climate changes. We examine the choice of five primary species using a multinomial logit model with and without climate variability measures based on 1300 livestock farm surveys in seven countries. The results indicate that climate variables are highly significant determinants of primary species choice after controlling for soils, geography, household characteristics, and country fixed effects. We find the probability of adopting any livestock increases with warming, but decreases when it becomes too wet. The impacts of climate change would vary by species and climate scenarios. For example, under a hot and dry CCC scenario by 2060, beef cattle decrease by 3.2%, dairy cattle by 2.3%, pigs by 0.5%, and chickens by 0.9%, which is offset by a large increase in sheep by 7%. These adaptive changes vary again by country. Large changes are observed in the Andean countries. Under the hot dry scenario, dairy cattle increase in Uruguay and Argentina, but decrease elsewhere. The increase in sheep occurs mostly in the Andes mountain countries such as Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, and Venezuela. Under a milder and wetter scenario, beef cattle choice declines in Colombia, Ecuador, and Venezuela, but increases in Argentina and Chile. Sheep increase in Colombia and Venezuela, but decrease in the high mountains of Chile where chickens are chosen more frequently. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This paper argues that debates amongst economists triggered by the Stern Review are partly relevant, focusing on key parameters translating real ethical issues, and partly misplaced in that they do not consider enough other determinants of climate change damages: i) the specifications of the utility function used for the assessments (preference for the environment, preference for smooth growth paths), ii) the interplay between uncertainty and the sequentiality of the decision, and iii) whether the growth engines behind the integrated assessment models can account for transient disequilibrium and sub-optimality. We derive some suggestions for any future research agenda in integrated assessment modelling, whatever the position of the analysts about the relevance of the intertemporal optimisation framework and the Bayesian approach to uncertainty in the climate affair. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to analyse and compare the costs of two strategies against transboundary water pollution, mitigation and adaptation measures, which are linked with respect to risk. Chance constraint programming is applied, and the analytical results indicate that total costs for given probabilistic targets are higher (lower) than the costs without risk linkage for negative (positive) covariance between the two classes of measures. A comparison of two international policies—cooperation and national uniform standards—indicates that cleaning under non-cooperative uniform national standards can be increased when considering stochastic pollution and linkage in risk between mitigation and adaptation measures. The empirical application to the Baltic Sea shows that the risk linkage can increase or decrease minimum costs for a given probabilistic target under cooperative solutions by 17 or 13%, and decrease the cost under national uniform policy for a given overall probabilistic target by approximately 10%. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Biological invasions are recognised to be a problem of growing severity. Human pathogens, weeds or pests in terrestrial systems and dominant alien species in freshwater or marine aquatic systems all impose significant costs in terms of forgone output or costs of control in every major system. Like many of the other environmental consequences of globalisation, biological invasions require that decisions be taken under uncertainty. Decision-makers in such circumstances have to choose between two main strategies: mitigation and adaptation. This paper characterises invasive species problems in terms of the properties of the stochastic processes they induce. It considers how mitigation and adaptation strategies may be modelled, and identifies the conditions in which each approach may be efficient and effective. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Nature-based solutions are quickly rising to the top of the sustainable urban development agenda as an ecosystem-based approach to mitigate and adapt to climate change, while also improving livelihoods and biodiversity. Achieving sustainability and resilience through nature-based solutions is an important means for cities and communities across the globe to take climate action and experiment with new forms governance, infrastructure, and planning and design. In this paper, I map the academic research structure of nature-based solutions and find that issues of social and environmental justice remain peripheral. To center justice in research and practice, I argue for a re-orientation towards just nature-based solutions —approaches that utilize the power of nature and people to transform the social, political, and economic drivers of socio-spatial inequality and environmental degradation into opportunities to create progressive, cohesive, antiracist, and social-ecologically sustainable communities. Based on the findings of the literature review and bibliometric analysis, I propose three pathways for just nature-based solutions : (1) race and class; (2) transformative co-production; and (3) value articulations. These starting points link to current principles in nature-based solutions and help bring clarity for scholars, activists, and planners on how to critically engage with the politics of environmental governance and decision-making. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The three main goals of ecological economic theory seek to predict and prevent system breakdowns. However chaos theory and human uncertainty/ignorance guarantee that shocks, breakdowns and catastrophes like COVID-19 will increasingly occur due to converging environmental resource crises. The challenge then is designing a resilient (safe-fail) economy that can endure, adapt to and successfully recover from breakdowns and avoid collapse. To date little attention has been paid in ecological economics to the implications of resilience for broader economic decisions affecting the design of global civilization. This paper provides a general introduction to resilience and an argument for why it should become a much larger focus of ecological economic research going forward. Five arguments are advanced for why resilience should not be subsumed under an existing goal, including that efforts to build resilience have the potential to both complement and contradict the other three goals, especially efficiency. The Resilience Alliance's adaptive cycle highlighting the cost to resilience of increasing scale and complexity meshes readily with ecological economist's own critiques of growth, encouraging increased collaboration between these transdisciplines. The need to further study these tensions provides justification for adding "Resilient Design" as a distinct fourth policy goal to core ecological economic theory. • COVID-19 exposes urgent need to improve economic resilience to unpredictable shocks. • Future shocks threaten to overwhelm existing three goals of ecological economics. • Problematic trying to subsume resilience under any existing ecological economic goal. • Making Resilient Design a new 4th goal would finally give equal weight to resilience. • Four goals together would provide framework for a new policy-relevant unifying theory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Unanticipated environmental shocks impact the livelihoods of many resource users around the world. These shocks are likely to be more unpredictable as the effects of climate change continue to mount. Yet how households adapt to these changing climatic conditions especially in the context of rapidly changing market conditions in most areas of the world, is poorly understood. These interactions have wide implications for both smallholder livelihoods and sustainable use of natural resources. In this paper, we examine the relationship between environmental shocks and stocking rates in livestock herds in the Inner Mongolian grasslands of northern China. We uniquely examine three types of shocks and how households adapt livestock production strategies in response to each. Separately and in aggregate, we look at three common shocks in Inner Mongolia: droughts, snowstorms, and locust outbreaks. We use a difference-in-differences approach to estimate changes in stocking rates among households that experience shocks versus those that do not with a panel dataset from 2009 to 2014 of 597 households. While we find no clear impact from locusts, our results suggest droughts and snowstorms have opposite effects: droughts are associated with increases in herd sizes, but snowstorms result in decreased herds. We suggest these differences are due to interactions between shocks, emerging options to borrow on credit, and livestock markets. Household adaptation to climate change will be strategic and take advantage of both available resources as well as market conditions. • Climate change is causing stronger and more unpredictable environmental shocks. • We use a difference-in-differences model to estimate the impact of shocks on stocking rate. • Drought relates to bigger herds; snowstorms relate to smaller herds. • Households adapt to shocks taking advantage of both available resources and market conditions. • Shaping well-functioning market may reduce opportunistic resource exploitation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The frequency and intensity of extreme climate events are increasing all around the world, due to climate change. Climate adaptation strategies are therefore needed, since mitigation strategies alone are not sufficient to avoid serious impacts of climate change. However, adaptation to climate change is not straightforward, as it is highly influenced by diverse and conflicting interests as well as epistemological (or scientific) uncertainties. Therefore, a minimum requirement for its success is the active participation of stakeholders and citizens in the adaptation policy cycle. This paper presents a case study on a participatory process involving civil servants from different municipalities in Malaysia, in Southeast Asia, with a view to considering the optimal level of engagement that is required for climate adaptation planning. The exercise consisted of a Focus Group session, where participants were asked to discuss the level of stakeholder and citizen participation that should be adopted within the Global Covenant of Mayors for Climate and Energy initiative. Contrary to authors' expectations, the participants tended to suggest medium to high levels of participation in the planning process. During the dialogues, a walking activity through the city, aimed at identifying hotspots of climate risks and defined as "safety walks", was one of the ideas proposed as a high-potential participatory method, spreading in the adaptation framework. Safety walks could complement climate modelling and enhance the robustness of climate risk assessments. • A focus group session on stakeholders participation in adaptation planning • Medium-high levels of participation in the planning process were suggested. • Technical expertise from local community is needed • "Safety walks" suggested as a high-potential stakeholder-involving participatory technique • Site-specific challenging issues were addressed through active discussion and best practices [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nature Based Solutions (NBS) are currently gaining importance in the EU policy agenda as a promising approach to mitigate and adapt to environmental and climate change. The main advantage of NBS over other adaptation strategies is their capability to deliver multiple benefits. They support the resilience of natural processes and help in reducing adaptation costs. In this paper, we address the current gaps in the literature by providing a comprehensive, easy-to-use classification scheme focussing on hydrological extreme events. The classification scheme is presented as a matrix and contains a portfolio of known NBS as well as the important criteria for their selection. Specifically, we have included disservices/ barriers, and the potential impacts of climate change on NBS. The matrix provides decision-makers with a tool that will guide them through the first phase of the complex process when choosing the most appropriative NBS for a specific challenge. In that way, we aim to support the spread of NBS in the scientific literature as well as their practical application. • An easy-to-use classification scheme for Nature Based Solutions • Consideration of climate change impacts on Nature Based Solutions • Demonstration of opportunities for Nature Based Solutions in the private sector [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Drought is a source of stress that affects forest growth, resulting in financial losses for forest owners and amenity losses for society. Due to climate change, such natural events will be more frequent and intense in the future. In this context, the objective of this paper is to compare, from an economic perspective, different forest adaptation strategies towards a drought-induced risk of decline. For that purpose, we focused on a case study of a beech forest in Burgundy (France) and we studied several adaptation options: density reduction, reduction of the rotation length, and substitution with Douglas-fir. We also considered two levels of drought risk (intermediate and low soil water capacity) and two climate scenarios from the IPCC (RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5). We combined a process-based forest-growth simulator (CASTANEA) with a traditional forest economics approach. The results showed that adaptation provided the best economic return in most of the scenarios considered. Combining strategies appears as a relevant way to adapt forests in view of a drought-induced risk of forest decline. We also demonstrated the importance of considering two disciplinary fields. Beneficial scenarios in an ecological perspective were not necessarily beneficial in an economic one and vice versa. • Drought affects forest growth resulting in timber production and carbon losses. • We combined a forest growth simulator with a classical forest economics approach. • We compared and combined different options of forest adaptation under two climates. • Forest needs adaptation and combining strategies provided the best economic return. • Ecological results and economics ones can coincide or not. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]