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Local Knowledge and Economical Significance of Commercialized Wild Edible Mushrooms in the Markets of Uruapan, Michoacan, Mexico. Wild edible mushrooms are a non-timber forest product of great importance because of their edibility, their cultural and ecological roles, and particularly their economic relevance as merchandise. This study presents a method for the identification of the most economically significant species through a compound index. Fieldwork was carried out in seven markets in the city of Uruapan, Michoacan, Mexico. We recorded the sale of 16 species that constitute 10 local ethnotaxa. Aspects of traditional mycological knowledge regarding systematics, ethnoecology, uses, and collection practices were also obtained. The most significant taxa were Hypomyces lactifluorum, Amanita complex. caesarea, Ramaria spp., and Lyophyllum decastes. We can suggest that the most economically significant species of mushrooms sold in this region are those with the highest supply in markets and correspondingly high profit for collectors. The compound index proved to be a useful tool not only to discover which species are the most relevant, but also to provide explanations for the reasons behind their significance.

Commercial exploitation of wild yams (Dioscorea spp.) was once a pillar of the Mexican economy and is currently practiced in the USA and Asia. However, no such activity has yet been reported in South America, the continent richest in Dioscorea species. Upon discovery of wild Dioscorea tubers in marketplaces in Bogota, Colombia, we sought to (1) identify the species being sold, (2) document the medicinal properties attributed to them, and (3) conduct a preliminary characterization of the market for this product in the capital. During the years 2010, 2012, and 2013, 226 semi-structured interviews were conducted with vendors in 82 medicinal plant stalls distributed in marketplaces throughout Bogota. Tubers of four native species were identified, all wild-harvested: D ioscorea coriacea, Dioscorea lehmannii, Dioscorea meridensis, and Dioscorea polygonoides; all were sold under the generic name zarzaparrilla, with D. coriacea being the most prevalent species. All vendors interviewed recommended Dioscorea spp. for treating “ailments of the blood,” with “blood cleanser,” and lowering triglycerides and cholesterol as the most often-cited specific uses. Total estimates of sales of wild yams over the study period averaged 488 kg/week, extrapolated to over 25,000 kg/year, with yearly sales varying between 5% and 6% around the mean. This is the first report of raw tubers of any Dioscorea species being commercialized for the treatment of blood or metabolic disorders in Latin America, and the data suggest there is a robust market established in Bogota. In the interest of public health, pharmacological studies should be undertaken to test the biological activity of these species and to rule out toxicity. We especially recommend population studies of D. coriacea to provide baseline data for sustainable management of this non-timber forest product.

The cork oak (Quercus suber L.) is harvested for its bark (cork), a highly valuable non-timber forest product. Recurrent cork harvesting is practiced over the lifetime of the tree and constitutes a stressful action that, while artificially promoting cork growth, may severely deplete tree vigor after an exploitation time span. To date, few long-term studies have been conducted regarding the effect of recurrent cork harvests on cork growth rates, and there is a complete lack of knowledge on the effect of the stress, induced by cork harvesting, on the vigor of the cork oak. In this study we propose to address the resilience of the cork oak to cork harvesting, using cork-ring width as an indicator of tree vigor. We use dendrochronological methods to develop an extended cork-ring width series that was analyzed by autoregressive integrated moving average modeling with an intervention analysis approach. We show that cork harvesting represents a human-induced loss of tree resilience only after six consecutive harvests, and that only after a single stochastic cork-harvesting event may trigger a sudden collapse in cork oak vigor. Our results also suggest that the tree (optimum) exploitation period of 110–120 years, which includes more than nine consecutive harvests, extends more than 35 years beyond the tree vigor breakpoint (occurring at the sixth consecutive harvest). Within this time frame, the tree is producing cork instinctively to survive, and its vulnerability to other (a)biotic stresses may increase, leading to untimely cork oak decline. These results suggest that there is a great potential in the time-series analysis of cork-ring widths for the development of tools that may enhance typical cork oak management planning by addressing both economic and ecological objectives.

Impact of Future Climate and Land Use Change on Non-timber Forest Product Provision in Benin, West Africa: Linking Niche-based Modeling with Ecosystem Service Values. Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) make a major contribution to the livelihoods of the West African population. However, these ecosystem services are threatened by climate and land use change. Our study aims at 1) the quantification and monetary mapping of important NTFPs, and 2) developing a novel approach to assess the impacts of climate and land use change on the economic benefits derived from these NTFPs. We performed household interviews in northern Benin to gather data on annual quantities of collected NTFPs from the three most important savanna tree species: Adansonia digitata, Parkia biglobosa, and Vitellaria paradoxa. Current market prices of the NTFPs were derived from local markets. We assessed the species’ current and future (2050) occurrence probabilities by calibrating niche-based models with climate and land use data at a 0.1° resolution (cell: ~10 × 10 km). To assess future economic gains and losses, respectively, we linked modeled species’ occurrence probabilities with the spatially assigned monetary values. Highest current annual benefits are obtained from V. paradoxa (USD 54,111 ± 28,126/cell), followed by P. biglobosa (USD 32,246 ± 16,526/cell) and A. digitata (USD 9,514 ± 6,243/cell). The future simulations showed spatially varying impacts of environmental change. In particular A. digitata might benefit in some regions. However, large areas are projected to lose up to 50 % of their current economic value by 2050 with regard to the three species. Our findings provide a first benchmark for local policy-makers to economically compare different land use options and adjust existing management strategies.

Spatial, Temporal, and Economic Constraints to the Commercial Extraction of a Non–Timber Forest Product: Copaiba (Copaifera spp.) Oleoresin in Amazonian Reserves. The increasing prevalence of government– and NGO–sponsored programs to encourage commercial non–timber forest product (NTFP) extractivism in the humid tropics has highlighted the need for ecological and socioeconomic appraisal of the viability of extractive industries. We adopted a novel integrative approach to examine NTFP resource potential and produced credible landscape–scale estimates of the projected value of an economically important Amazonian NTFP, the medicinal oleoresin of Copaifera trees, within two large contiguous extractive reserves in Brazilian Amazonia. We integrated results derived from previous spatial ecology and harvesting studies with socioeconomic and market data, and mapped the distribution of communities within the reserves. We created anisotropic accessibility models that determined the spatial and temporal access to Copaifera trees in permanently unflooded (terra firme) and seasonally flooded (varzea) forests. Just 64.9 % of the total reserve area was accessible, emphasizing the distinction between the actual resource stock and that which is available to extractors. The density of productive tree species was higher in the varzea forests, but per–tree productivity was greater in the terra firme forests, resulting in similar estimates of oleoresin yield per unit area (64–67 ml ha–1) in both forest types. A greater area of the varzea forests was accessible within shorter travel times of ≤250 minutes; longer travel times allowed access to increasingly greater volumes of oleoresin from the terra firme forests. The estimated total volume of oleoresin accessible within the two reserves was 38,635 liters for an initial harvest, with projected offtake for a subsequent harvest falling to 8,274 liters. A household that extracted just 2 liters of oleoresin per month could generate 5 % of its mean income; market data suggested that certification could increase the value of the resource fivefold. Our approach is valuable in that it incorporates a range of methodologies and quantitatively accounts for the numerous constraints to the commercial viability of NTFP extraction.

Potential Management of Chamaedorea seifrizii (Palmae), a Non-timber Forest Product from the Tropical Forest of Calakmul, Southeast Mexico. Leaves and seeds of Chamaedorea (xate) palms are important non-timber forest products (NTFPs). In the Calakmul region (Yucatan Peninsula) of Mexico, several communities have sporadically collected and sold seeds of C. seifrizii since 1980. However, harvesting has intensified recently, raising concerns about overexploitation. To evaluate the economic potential of leaf and seed exploitation in the area, we collected information on abundance, population patterns, and leaf and seed stocks in Ejido Conhuas, a community within the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve (CBR). Then we combined these data with current market values and hypothetical management regimes obtained from the literature for leaves and seeds. Conducting a quantitative analysis of 43 0.1ha plots with differences in forest and soil type, we assessed the abundance of C. seifrizzi in the area. We also conducted interviews to estimate the importance of xate in the local economy. We found C. seifrizii density to be highly variable, with a mean (±SE) of 295 (±35), with forest type being the most influential factor. Population structures differ between forest types, with healthy populations in medium and lower forest. We found a mean density of leaves of harvestable size of 3,750 (±380) leaves ha-1, while seed production was 1.5 (±0.3) kg/ha-1 of fresh seeds. Assuming sustainable harvest rates of 30–50% for leaves and 80% for seeds, one hectare of forest could generate USD 7.0–15.9/ha-1. Considering the number of households (102) and 10% of the total area managed each year (5,700 ha), this harvest could generate a household income of USD 391–838 annually. At the moment, xate trade represents a minor component in the economy of the community, but given the area’s extensive forest (>57,000 ha), the resource abundance, and the low human population, we believe the NTFPs derived from C. seifrizii have a potentially great economic impact in the area. Manejo potencial de Chamaedorea seifrizii (Palmae): Un producto forestal no maderable del bosque tropical de Calakmul, sureste de Mexico. Las hojas y frutos de las palmas Chamaedorea (xate) representan un importante producto forestal no maderable. En la region de Calakmul, varias comunidades han recolectado y vendido esporadicamente semillas de C. seifrizii. Sin embargo, la cosecha se ha intensificado y hay preocupaciones de sobreexplotacion. Para evaluar el potencial de la cosecha de hojas y semillas en la region de Calakmul realizamos una investigacion de abundancia y de su potencial economico en el Ejido Conhuas, una comunidad dentro de la Reserva de la Biosfera Calakmul. Evaluamos la abundancia de C. seifrizii en 43 sitios de 0.1 ha con diferencias en tipos de bosque y de suelo. Encontramos que la densidad de C. seifrizii es muy variable con una media (±ES) de 295 (±35), siendo el tipo de bosque el factor mas importante. La estructura de la poblacion difiere entre tipos de bosques con las mejores poblaciones en selva mediana y baja. Las hojas cosechables fueron muy abudantes con una media de 3,750 (±380) leaves ha-1, mientras que la produccion de frutos fue de 1.5 (±0.3) kg/ha de fruto fresco. Asumiendo 30%–50% hojas of leaves and 80% de frutos como maximo de cosecha sustentable, la extraccion de C. seifrizii generaria USD 7.0–15.9/ha. Considerando un numero de familias (102) y el manejo de un 10% del area total de la comunidad (5,700 has), la cosecha de xate podria generar un ingreso annual de USD 391–838 anuales. Creemos que C. seifrizii representa un PFNM con un gran potencial economico.

Impact of Women’s Harvest Practices onPandanus guillaumetiiin Madagascar’s Lowland Rainforests.Pandanus guillaumetii B.C. Stone is endemic to the east coast rainforests of Madagascar. The plant is an important non-timber forest product (NTFP) for the local population living near these forests, and its leaves are collected by women to be woven into mats. These mats have economic value and are also used for daily activities. At present, little is known about how local harvesting practices impact this plant species. In this study, we describe women’s local harvest practices and quantify their impact on the P. guillaumetii population. We carried out plant inventories as well as interviews and participatory observations with local people harvesting P. guillaumetii in two villages with different population densities in the Manompana region. Inventories were conducted at varying distances from the villages in order to better understand the influence of human pressure on the plant population. The results suggest that local communities apply practices that tend to minimize the harvest impact on the plant. Harvesting seems to have no effect on the actual density of P. guillaumetii. However, the availability of plants with leaves of sufficient quality for mat production is influenced by human pressure. Considering the decreasing number of plants suitable for handicraft, we assume that their availability in the long term may not fulfill the needs of the local people.

Livelihood and Conservation Aspects of Non-wood Forest Product Collection in the Shaxi Valley, Southwest China. The Shaxi Valley in Yunnan Province, P.R. China, is inhabited by Tibeto-Burman ethnic groups. We found a clear dichotomy between household strategies in the valley bottom and the mountain areas, with significantly lower household income in the mountains. The majority Bai people live predominantly in the fertile valley floor and cultivate rice, keep livestock, and commonly pursue off-farm work. Other ethnic groups live in more remote mountainous areas of the Shaxi Valley, where the collection of non-wood forest products, especially wild mushrooms, plays an important role in securing livelihoods. However, only households in the valley's central villages engage in the profitable non-wood forest product trade. Mushroom populations appear to be less vulnerable to commercial harvest than the rapidly declining wild medicinal plant populations. Due to this decline, local farmers have gained interest in cultivating medicinal plants, but only if risks are low and if financial and technical support is provided. Encouraging the cultivation of medicinal plants appears to be an appropriate means of sustainable community development.

Returns from Harvesting a Commercial Non-timber Forest Product andParticular Characteristics of Harvesters and Their Strategies:Aquilaria crassnaand Agarwood in Lao PDR. This paper explores associations between the returns from harvesting a commercial non-timber forest product and particular characteristics of harvesters and their strategies. Data originate from a survey in Laos of the harvest and trade of agarwood, a highly valuable commodity harvested mainly from tree species in the genus Aquilaria. Five groups of harvesters were identified, with considerable differences in returns between them. Foreign harvesters, i.e., ethnic Vietnamese, earned approximately USD 13 per day on average, while nonlocal full-time harvesters earned approximately USD 9, and nonlocal part-time harvesters USD 7 per day. Local people earn approximately USD 5 per day and only USD 4 if harvesting only took place in village forests. Factors observed to determine returns are market access, especially access to national and international markets, and knowledge and experience in trading, harvesting, and the organization of harvesting trips. It is suggested that interventions should be made to address these factors, to level out returns from harvesting, and to increase the share of returns captured by local people.

Weekly markets in tribal areas are an important socioeconomic institution. Surveys were conducted during 1997-1999 in over one dozen rural markets in Surguja in the State of Madhya Pradesh in the central region of India. Tribals bring products of at least 30 species to these markets for sale. Traders from towns come to these markets to purchase forest produce; others set up small shops for selling consumer goods such as ready-made clothes, toiletries, utensils, stationery, some plastic goods, match boxes, and some cereals and tobacco.

When subjected to fungal attack, Aquilaria spp. (Thymelaeaceae) produce a fragrant resin that is traded internationally as gaharu. Socioeconomic aspects of the gaharu trade were investigated via interviews with collectors and local and international traders. In addition, the extent of local and international trade was evaluated by reference to official government statistics. Evidence that gaharu resources are declining was obtained from the personal experience of gaharu collectors, and official statistics relating to the declining number of gaharu export companies in operation. Traders also reported that the main source of gaharu has recently switched from Sumatra and Kalimantan to sources in eastern Indonesia (Maluku and Irian Jaya), a finding supported by official statistics. Disparities recorded between official figures for the price and volume of gaharu in local and international trade, supported by comments made by export traders, indicate that a high proportion of the more valuable, high-grade gaharu is traded illegally by personal transaction. Interviews with gaharu collectors indicated that traditional approaches to harvesting are declining, as more nonlocal people become involved in collection, leading to more intensive harvesting practices. Together, these findings suggest that the current Indonesian trade in gaharu is not sustainable.

A monodominant forest of Brosimum rubescens Taub. located in an Indian Reservation was compared with a similar forest located on a farm owned by non-Xavante settlers, in terms of its phytosociology and the patterns of plant use. In both areas, 60 (10 X 10 m) nested-plots were established in a representative portion of the forest. All woody plants were identified, and their common and scientific names and uses were recorded. The ethnobotanical study was conducted by open-interviews initially and ranking at a later stage for a total of two years of study. The Xavante people use more species, 56% of the 57 species fit in five categories of direct use while the settlers have direct use for 50% of the 44 species found in the forest. The Xavante culture has strong links with the native biodiversity, valuing the multiple use of the species while the settlers use them mostly for timber. The species with higher IVI in the phytosociological study were also the most valued in both communities. Brosimum wood is used for the making of traditional clubs by the Xavante, the fruits are edible and attract wildlife for hunting. The non-Xavante people have been heavily logging these trees for fence posts used in the large farms of the region.

We evaluated the diversity, social, and economic aspects of nontimber forest product (NTFP) collection in the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve (NBR), in southern India. The NBR is a region known for its floral andfaunal diversity, as well as an area with increasing human pressure. Fifty to 75% of the households (HH) in rural areas gather a diversity of forest products. Dominant NTFPs contributed 25–60% of the average annual per capita household income from NTFPs. The mean annual per capita household income from NTFPs ranges between Rs. 134 and Rs. 4955. The mean annual income per hectare ranges from Rs. 93 in the montane zone to Rs. 3780 in the moist deciduous. NTFPs contribute 15–50% of the annual per capita income of rural households. Ethnicity plays an important role in the collection of NTFPs and ethnic tribes derive a large proportion of their annual per capita income from NTFPs.

The economic importance of gaharu is assessed in three villages on the Bahau River in north-central Borneo to gain insights about the incentives for harvesting and management of a valuable nontimber forest product. Three indicators of economic value—level and proportion of income, returns to labor, and proportion of gaharu collecting households per village—are used to demonstrate the multiple incentives that NTFP income can generate. The concept of incentive logic is developed as an analytical technique to show how economic values can be linked to incentives for different types of management actions. The article discusses how incentives from gaharu income were most likely linked to the stake local people had in the resource, their preferences about which forest product to harvest, and their willingness to engage in collective action. These incentives contributed to sustainability to the extent they induced actions that reduce threats to the resource. The article suggests that an understanding of the influence of economic incentives on people’s resource management can be improved by recognizing three factors: the multiple incentives created by an income, the logical link of those incentives to a management action, and the influence of other sociocultural and biophysical factors on management.

Dypsis fibrosa is widespread in eastern Madagascar and local people regard it as one of the most important palms due to its use as thatch. In an interview survey 12 different uses of this palm were reported. Most informants knew only one or two uses, but variance was large. How many uses people know and what they use different palm parts for is correlated to socioeconomic factors such as personal wealth and home village. Comparison of data obtained from interviews and observations showed that there is not always a strict correlation between ethnobotanical data elicited in surveys, actual extent of use, and importance accorded to different plant resources. Informants were generally aware of an human-caused decline inD. fibrosa abundance, but viewed it as inevitable and suggested to replaceD. fibrosa products by other materials. Although local people viewD. fibrosa as very important, motivation for its conservation and sustainable use seems to be low.

This study examines the use of Astrocaryum standleyanum for basketry by Wounaan and Embera artisans in Panama. Fibers from the palm are a traditional source of material for baskets, which have become commercial art items within the last fifteen years. Data on palm use were collected over two years, largely from Darien Province. Results indicate that the palm is destructively harvested, usually for a single spear leaf. Artisans remove the fibers from the pinnae and color them with dye plants. Astrocaryum standleyanum strands are sewn around a foundation of Carludovica palmata to make coiled baskets. Wounaan weavers are considered the better artisans, perhaps because of cultural traditions or a longer history with art vendors. The sale of A., standleyanum baskets is an important source of cash income, with both domestic and international sales. The destructive harvesting of palms threatens the industry and suggestions are made for sustainable harvest.

We evaluated the impact of two leaf harvesting methods on the clonal understory palm Geonoma deversa. In the first method only the leaves are cut, in the second the complete crown is severed. Stands representative for each method are compared with unharvested stands. Both methods of harvesting reduce clone size and reproductive output (inflorescence and infructescence per clone), and lower the number of ramets available for the next harvest. Cutting only the leaves represents a better method of harvest because of a lower impact on the residual stock. Economic analysis reveals that the value of this resource (standing leaf value) is low (2 to 26 U.S. $/ha) compared with labor costs that can be between 55 to 86% of palm thatch revenues. Harvesting Geonoma leaves generates a net present value (NPV) that ranges from 3 to 191 U.S. $/ha depending on the stand location, the wage, and the interest rate employed for the calculation.

This study documents the utilization aspects and distribution of ethnobotanical knowledge of the local people of Morogoro, Tanzania, as a first step towards sustainable utilization and conservation of tropical woodlands. A total of 133 arborescent species in 31 families was identified of which 69% had a variety of uses. These uses were classified into 12 categories and major uses were charcoal, firewood, medicine, and poles. Most tree species have occasional uses, but a few are exceptionally useful and thus their levels of utilization may far exceed their regeneration and production. The questionnaire survey indicated that 62% of the respondents agreed that traditional medical services were more available than modern services. Utilization surveys indicated that wooden poles are the building material used in 98% of the dwellings and storage structures, wild foods were useful for food security especially during drought years, and high quality timber trees have been depleted in the forest because of earlier exploitation by pit-sawing. The distribution of ethnobotanical knowledge indicated that much of the relevant ethnobotanical and utilization information was held by more aged members of the society and hence there is a clear need to capture this knowledge before it is lost. This study has shown that resources are defined by use and culture, and some components of ethnobotanical knowledge have potential for the sustainable management of miombo woodlands.

Forest use by Afro-American people on the Pacific coast of Choco, Colombia, was investigated using a quantitative methodology based upon informant consensus. Information was obtained for all species ≥ cm dbh in three plots totaling 1.8 ha. Eighty-nine uses were recorded; 62.8% of the species, 74% of the families and 83.3% of the individuals have some use. Most uses involve subsistence activities The most important uses were selective extraction of wood for construction, firewood, and materials for technological application. Use values for species and families were dependent on their abundance. For some particularly useful species and families (Lauraceae, Annonaceae, and Sapotaceae), however, use value was higher than expected from their abundance. This may suggest overexploitation of those species and families. Demographic studies of those species are recommended. All recorded uses are listed and information on the use values of the species is provided.

Fuelwood is a predominant source of domestic energy for the Soliga, an aboriginal tribe, and non-Soliga people inhabiting the core and the fringe of the Biligiri Rangaswamy Temple (BRT) wildlife sanctuary in Karnataka, India. Approximately 7000 Soliga and 66000 non-Soliga people depend on the 540 km2 sanctuary for fuelwood. The demand for fuelwood is estimated to be 134.7 t d-1 or 49165 t y-1 against production of 66024 t y-1 for the entire sanctuary. Consumption patterns vary with the season and the altitude. The pressure for fuelwood is far greater on the fringe (85.8%) than in the core (14.2%). The fuelwood supply emanates from an activity zone of 20.1% of the total forest area which produces only 27% of the total demand. Furthermore, only selected species are preferred for fuel use, indicating that only a certain percentage of total productivity is available for extraction. Thus, the demandsupply gap is far greater than it actually appears. A wide gap between demand and supply demonstrates that the BRT forests cannot cater to the fuelwood needs sustainably with the prevailing patterns of extraction. Probable consequences of fuelwood extraction on biodiversity are discussed, and management options to meet energy requirement and to conserve biodiversity are explored.

This paper describes the collection and trade of dry medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) from Gorkha District in central Nepal to Delhi in northern India. It is based on two years’ field work in Nepal and India. Substantial amounts of MAPs are available and accessible in the northern and middle parts of the district; currently 35 species are traded and further 13 species traded elsewhere are found in the district. Approximately 3700 individuals are engaged in commercial MAP collection; in the northern and middle parts of the district 25–100% of households in a given village participate in the collection. The average daily income is competitive with other income generating activities and commercial MAP collection constitutes from 15–35% of poor households ’ annual income (households with less than 300 US$ annual income). Commercial MAP collection is generally not important in the southern part of the district. Almost all species are harvested in the wild. The harvested and dried MAPs move southward from the forests and alpine pastures in Nepal to the main Indian markets on the Gangetic plain. Marketing margin analysis of the six main products traded shows that collectors’ net margins average 46.6% of the Delhi wholesale price; the overall average net margin for traders is only 3.0% and for Terai wholesalers 31.5%. The main potentials and pitfalls in connection to improving the trade for the collectors are briefly discussed. There are indications that the commercial MAP collection in central Nepal is not unsustainable.

This study examines the productivity, sustainability, and management of tagua nuts from the palm Phytelephas aequatorialis under three management regimes in northwestern Ecuador. Tagua nuts are used internationally as an ivory substitute and the palm fronds are used locally as roof thatch. Plots were established in a control site and in three local management regimes: pure tagua groves; stands with tagua and cacao in an agroforestry system; and tagua groves where the undergrowth is cleared and old fronds removed. Data were collected for one year and local extractors were interviewed about their tagua management. Palm demography indicates heavy management with few subadult individuals and many more adult females than males. Productivity analyses do not demonstrate the influence of any one environmental variable on leaf or infructescence productivity. The pure tagua grove is the management regime most conducive to tagua sustainability. The sustainability results are underscored by the extractive methodology, where local extractors maximize tagua collected while minimizing collection time. These results are incorporated into management recommendations to foster tagua extraction while ensuring its sustainability and future use.

Dipterocarpus alatus (Dipterocarpaceae) is native to the mainland of Southeast Asia, where its oleoresin is used by indigenous people for illumination and for waterproofing baskets and boats. In modern society it is used for paint, varnish and lacquer and the essential oil is used as a fixative in perfumes. This species is also important for its timber. Tapping, marketing and economic importance of this non-timber forest product in a Laotian village, is described here. Annual production of oleoresin per tapped tree is between 22.5 and 31.0 l and the price received by the tappers is US $0.30/1. The product represents a main source of cash income to many villagers and the recent approach by businessmen could indicate an increased demand. There are good possibilities to enhance revenues for the tappers by adding value to the product at the source.

This study investigated the relationship between the abundance and size ofD. polyacanthos and measures of forest canopy structure. Varzea and terra firme forest were selected for study at the mouth of the Amazon estuary, Para, Brazil. The forest canopy characteristics investigated included individual tree height and height to base of the live portion of the crown, forest canopy depth (the distance from the lowest foliage in the understory to the top of the canopy including all free space between top and bottom), forest canopy thickness (the portion of the forest canopy depth occupied only by foliage) and forest canopy density (the sum of lengths of each of the individual crowns that make up forest canopy depth) (see Fig. 2b). The attributes ofD. polyacanthos measured included leaf number, stem height and percent coverage within the stands. Results from this study suggest thatD. polyacanthos can be encouraged to grow through selective cutting of canopy trees and promotion of regenerating forest stands on terra firme fallow. The protocol used to relateD. polyacanthos abundance and size to kind of forest canopy structure can be used for evaluation of other climbing palms.

Tropical forests represent repositories of medicinal plant species and indigenous ethnomedical knowledge. These biotic and cognitive resources are threatened by forest removal and culture change. It has, however, yet to be demonstrated quantitatively that tropical pharmacopoeias are concentrated in primary as opposed to disturbed forests, nor that folk ethnomedical knowledge is disappearing. I examined these questions by means of a useful species enumeration of 1-hectare primary and secondary forest plots, and a survey of the regional plant pharmacopoeia of the Atlantic forests of Bahia, Brazil, a region that has witnessed significant human and biological modification. Healers demonstrated a strong preference for disturbed over primary forest. Second growth forest plots yielded 2.7 times the number of medicinal species identified in primary forest plots. The regional survey likewise elicited an ethnoflora characterized by herbaceous, weedy, cultivated, and exotic taxa. These results may reflect the availability and intrinsic medicinal value of disturbance species, as well as the increasing rarity of the region’s primary forests. They may also represent the long term outcome of culture change, cognitive erosion, and reformulation of the region’s perceived healing flora.

Sustainable extraction of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) has recently gained considerable attention as a means to enhance rural incomes and conserve tropical forests. However, there is little information on the amounts of products collected per unit area and the impact of extraction on forest structure and composition. In this paper we estimate the quantities of selected products gathered by the Soligas, the indigenous people in the Biligiri Rangaswamy Temple (BRT) sanctuary in Karnataka, India, and examine the effect of extraction on forest structure and composition. Two sites, distant (DS) and proximal (PS), were identified based on the proximity to a Soliga settlement. The frequency of different size classes indicates that regeneration overall is poor in the area. The two sites show differences in species richness, basal area, and tree mortality. Furthermore, non-timber forest product species show a greater deficit of small size classes than the timber forest species, suggesting that regeneration is affected by collection of seeds and fruits from non-timber forest product species. Regeneration, however, may also be affected by other anthropogenic pressures such as fire, grazing and competition with weeds.

Sustainable extraction of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) depends upon harvesting a small fraction of the total productivity. Over-exploitation can lead to a loss of biodiversity, but a low level of extraction, without value addition at the point of origin, is usually not economically feasible for extractors. Extraction and productivity levels per unit area for most non-timber forest products are unknown, nor do we have much information about value addition at various points in the marketing channels. Here we determine extraction and productivity levels for Amla trees (Phyllanthus emblica), which yield fruits that are used for a wide variety of purposes in preparation of various foods, beverages and medicines. We also present preliminary data on the price appreciation of the fruit for one of the processed products. We have determined that the current level of extraction, 60-80% of all fruits at the population level, may have a negative effect on new recruitment. We present a model for value addition that has the potential to enhance income and reduce the level of extraction. This model is currently being implemented by the Soliga community with the assistance of a non-governmental organization.

It is generally assumed that the sustained extraction and processing of non-timber forest products by local people can enhance their cash income and provide an alternative to tropical deforestation. However, the degree to which such products actually or may potentially contribute to rural incomes is poorly documented. We present the results of a study that seeks to evaluate the reliance of an indigenous group on non-timber forest products for cash income. Furthermore, we examine the effect of household variables on the cash income derived from collection and the price appreciation of non-timber forest products. These products account for nearly half of the gross annual income earned by the Soliga households in the Biligiri Rangan Hills of the Karnataka State in South India. Econometric models indicate that although income derived from the extraction of non-timber forest products is high in proportion to the time devoted to the collection, the extraction is not a preferred vocation. Furthermore, price appreciation for non-timber forest products varies for different products and, overall, the Soligas obtain essentially minimal wages for their extractive efforts. We discuss possible mechanisms for enhancement of Soligas’ income and the involvement of Soligas in conservation efforts.

A preliminary assessment of the utilization of plant species was undertaken within an Amerindian community at Kurupukari, Guyana. A total of 120 plant species of 46 plant families, covering 246 different plant uses were identified. Plant uses were divided into six utilization categories; 64 species for medicinal, 53 for technological, 43 edible, 20 for timber, 14 for construction and two species with miscellaneous uses. Of the 120 plant species, one species was recorded with five different use categories, two with four and 13 with three. A further 23 species were identified as having multiple uses. Of the 20 commercial timber species, five species were also shown to exhibit some form of non-timber product use, emphasising the under-utilization of species extraction. The dual extraction of both timber and non-timber resources from the same tree as a more effective sustainable utilization of available forest resources is also discussed.

An ethnobotanical inventory of lianas was carried out in a 1-ha plot of tropical moist forest in the Cuyabeno Reserve, Amazonian Ecuador. We obtained information about the uses that the Siona-Secoya Indians have for lianas. Of 98 species in the 1-ha plot, 47% were useful for the Siona-Secoya. Of the species used, 67% were for medicines, food, stimulants, and poisons; 17% had ritual applications, and 15% were used to make ropes or to weave baskets, toys, and ornaments. The species of lianas that were most useful were the ones with the highest values of ecological parameters such as density, dominance, and relative length. There is a close relationship between the ecological characteristics of the liana community and the uses made of it by the Indians.

This is a study of the historic transition in Southeast Asia, in particular Borneo, from the exploitation of native forest rubbers to Para rubber (Hevea brasiliensis, Euphorbiaceae). During the second half of the nineteenth century, booming international markets subjected forest rubbers to more intensive and competitive exploitation. At the same time, the settlement patterns of tribal rubber gatherers were becoming more sedentary and their agriculture more intensive.Hevea spp. was better suited to these changed circumstances than the native forest rubbers, largely because it was cultivated not naturally grown. The status ofHevea spp. in Southeast Asia as a cultigen, as opposed to a natural forest product, and the political-economic implications of this helps to explain the contrasting histories of smallholder rubber producers in the New and Old Worlds. This study offers an historical perspective on current debates regarding relations between forest resources, forest peoples, and the state.

The population biology ofAquilaria malaccensis, one source of gharu, and Cinnamomum mollissimum, one source of wild cinnamon, was studied in a 50 ha permanent plot of primary rain forest in Malaysia. Median diameter growth rates of 0.22 cm yr-1 and 0.1 cm yr-1 should not be prohibitive of economic exploitation, and suggest that the trees could be grown commercially. However, the natural densities were between 2 and 3 trees over 1 cm d.b.h. per ha, which is roughly the median for all trees in the plot, would preclude economic exploitation of these natural populations. The economics of harvesting natural populations is considered in a preliminary fashion by allowing favorable assumptions of quantity and quality of production. The price likely to be fetched from either a first time extraction (on the order of US$10.00 per ha) or from sustained production (on the order of US$0.10 per ha per yr), are too small to be of interest as single-product schemes, and are negligible compared to the extraction of multi-species crops of timber. However, it is possible that by combining multiple products under a “High Diversity Forestry” scheme, one could increase the density of harvestable products, reduce the unit cost of labor and improve the economic portrait.

The Pacaya Palm (Chamaedorea tepejilote; Arecaceae), a common tropical forest palm occurring from Mexico to Colombia, bears a male inflorescence that is edible when immature. Pacaya, a traditional food in Guatemala and adjoining countries, is preserved and exported in small quantities to the United States and Canada. Production in Guatemala comes largely from cultivated domesticated palms selected for the larger size of the male inflorescence. This palm also is a source of palm heart, and of leaves for floral arrangements and is grown as an ornamental. Pacaya is an excellent crop for small farmers who would benefit from its development through an increase in export markets.

Mudumalai is biologically rich with a wealth of plant and animal life. Increasing human numbers and current patterns of non-timber forest product, fodder and fuelwood extraction threaten the integrity of the ecosystem. Change in management of the protected areas that include the Mudumalai region is needed. In particular, policies relating to grazing and basic energy requirements need to be reexamined. At the same time, mechanisms must be developed to increase rural incomes using means other than exploitation of natural resources.

Forest-product use among nonforest dwelling cultural groups in Southeast Asia is not well known, particularly in contrast to what is known about indigenous forest-product collectors. A case study in one lowland Filipino village in Leyte, Philippines, revealed that over half of village households depend upon 8 species of commercially valuable rattan and 8 species of timber as a primary source of livelihood, and that all village households collected forest-products for supplementary and emergency income. The future of the rattan and timber trade on Leyte is seriously threatened by agricultural encroachment and intensive collecting pressures in the absence of forest management.

Tagua is the hard seed of a South American palm tree, highly valued for manufacture into buttons and other small articles requiring a hard, easily cut, lustrous material.