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This paper presents a literature review on urban design indicators addressing the impact of urban geometry and vegetation on the outdoor thermal environment at the pedestrian level, as urban geometry and vegetation have been regarded as the most influential urban design factors that affect outdoor microclimate. The thermal balance concept is first introduced to elaborate how each component of energy fluxes is affected by the urban built environment, which helps to explore the underlying thermophysical mechanisms of how urban design modifies the outdoor thermal environment. The literature on numerous urban design descriptors addressing urban geometric characteristics is categorized into five groups in this paper according to the design features that the parameters entail, including land use intensity, building form, canyon geometry, space enclosure and descriptive characteristics. The literature on urban vegetation descriptors is reviewed together, followed by the combined effect of urban geometry and vegetation. This paper identifies a series of important urban design parameters and shows that the impact of design parameters on thermal environment varies with time, season, local climate and urban contexts. Contradictory impacts often occur between daytime and nighttime, or different seasons, which requests trade-offs to be achieved when proposing design strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper is dealing with mechanisms that can accelerate the global diffusion of climate-friendly technologies. The accelerated diffusion of low-carbon technology innovation can possibly be achieved by interactive processes such as: (1) mutually reinforcing cycles of policy-induced domestic market growth, innovation, and policy feedback; (2) lead markets and political lesson-drawing, the reinforced international adoption of innovations from pioneer countries; and (3) interaction between the vertical and horizontal dynamics in multi-level systems of governance. The three mechanisms are not exclusive. They can overlap and reinforce each other. After a theoretical introduction they will be described. The empirical focus is on the European system of multi-level climate governance. The paper draws some final conclusions for policy makers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Indoor climate affects health and productivity of the occupants in office buildings, yet in many buildings of this type indoor climate conditions are not well-controlled due to insufficient heating or cooling capacity, high swings of external or internal heat loads, improper control or operation of heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) equipment, etc. However, maintenance of good indoor environmental conditions in buildings requires increased investments and possible higher energy consumption. This paper focuses on the relation between investment costs for retrofitting HVAC equipment as well as decreased energy use and improved performance of occupants in office buildings. The cost-benefit analysis implementation algorithm is presented in this paper, including energy survey of the building, estimation of occupants dissatisfied by key indoor climate indicators using questionnaire survey and measurements. Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution (TOPSIS) analysis is used in the proposed method for data processing. A case study of an office building is presented in order to introduce an application example of the proposed method. Results of the study verify the applicability of the proposed algorithm and TOPSIS analysis as a practical tool for office building surveys in order to maximize productivity by means of cost efficient technical building retrofitting solutions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Urban sustainability has been connected to form and compactness of the urban tissue. At the same time the relationship between urban form and energy efficiency is strongly affected by climate. This paper investigates the effect of climate conditions on the relation between urban morphology and energy efficiency of urban blocks, focusing on the Greek city context. A set of building block typologies is analyzed with regard to their form factors such as S/V ratio, coverage ratio and building ratio for the climatic conditions of two cities, each one belonging to a different climatic zone. Heating and cooling loads are calculated at an urban block scale for the climate of the city of Thessaloniki (zone C) and of the city of Heraklion (zone A) in order to draw conclusions about the relation between geometry factors and energy efficiency. The results of the research indicate that there is a strong relationship between urban morphology factors and energy efficiency and that the total load demand of urban blocks can be described as a function of form parameters. Results of the research, concerning the energy demand calculation, are valuable since they indicate the energy profile of each typology according to climate and can be used for defining different urban strategies towards sustainability in a context-based climate dependent analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since a representative dataset of the climatological features of a location is important for calculations relating to many fields, such as solar energy system, agriculture, meteorology and architecture, there is a need to investigate the methodology for generating a typical meteorological year (TMY). In this paper, a hybrid method with mixed treatment of selected results from the Danish method, the Festa-Ratto method, and the modified typical meteorological year method is proposed to determine typical meteorological years for 35 locations in six different climatic zones of China (Tropical Zone, Subtropical Zone, Warm Temperate Zone, Mid Temperate Zone, Cold Temperate Zone and Tibetan Plateau Zone). Measured weather data (air dry-bulb temperature, air relative humidity, wind speed, pressure, sunshine duration and global solar radiation), which cover the period of 1994-2015, are obtained and applied in the process of forming TMY. The TMY data and typical solar radiation data are investigated and analyzed in this study. It is found that the results of the hybrid method have better performance in terms of the long-term average measured data during the year than the other investigated methods. Moreover, the Gaussian process regression (GPR) model is recommended to forecast the monthly mean solar radiation using the last 22 years (1994-2015) of measured data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The energy transition of future urban energy systems is still the subject of an ongoing debate. District energy supply can play an important role in reducing the total socio-economic costs of energy systems and primary energy supply. Although lots of research was done on integrated modelling including district heating, there is a lack of research on integrated energy modelling including district cooling. This paper addressed the latter gap using linear continuous optimization model of the whole energy system, using Singapore for a case study. Results showed that optimal district cooling share was 30% of the total cooling energy demand for both developed scenarios, one that took into account spatial constraints for photovoltaics installation and the other one that did not. In the scenario that took into account existing spatial constraints for installations, optimal capacities of methane and thermal energy storage types were much larger than capacities of grid battery storage, battery storage in vehicles and hydrogen storage. Grid battery storage correlated with photovoltaics capacity installed in the energy system. Furthermore, it was shown that successful representation of long-term storage solutions in urban energy models reduced the total socio-economic costs of the energy system for 4.1%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the coming decades, the European energy system is expected to become increasingly reliant on non-dispatchable generation such as wind and solar power. Under such a renewable energy scenario, a better characterization of the extreme weather condition 'Dunkelflaute', which can lead to a sustained reduction of wind and solar power, is important. In this paper, we report findings from the very first climatological study of Dunkelflaute events occurring in eleven countries surrounding the North and Baltic Sea areas. By utilizing multi-year meteorological and power production datasets, we have quantified various statistics pertaining to these events and also identified their underlying meteorological drivers. It was found that almost all periods tagged as Dunkelflaute events (with a length of more than 24 h) are in November, December, and January for these countries. On average, there are 50–100 h of such events happening in each of these three months per year. The limited wind and solar power production during Dunkelflaute events is shown to be mainly driven by large-scale high-pressure systems and extensive low-cloud coverage. Even though the possibility of simultaneous Dunkelflaute events in neighboring countries can be as high as 30–40%, such events hardly occur simultaneously in all the eleven countries. Through an interconnected EU-11 power system, the mean frequency of Dunkelflaute drops from 3–9% for the individual countries to approximately 3.5% for the combined region, highlighting the importance of aggregating production over a wide area to better manage the integration of renewable energy generation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Heat pumps (HPs) are being developed with a new emphasis on cold climates. To lower the environmental impact of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, alternate low global warming potential (GWP) refrigerants must also replace the exclusive use of the refrigerant R410A, preferably without re-engineering the mechanical hardware. In this paper, we analyze the performance of four low-GWP alternative refrigerants (R32, R452B, R454B, and R466A) relative to the conventional R410A and draw conclusions on the relative performances for providing heating in cold climates based on the Air-Conditioning, Heating, and Refrigeration Institute (AHRI) 210/240 standard for two-speed heat pumps. The simulations are carried using the Department of Energy, Oak Ridge National Laboratory (DOE/ORNL) Heat Pump Design Model (HPDM), a well-known heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) modeling and design tool in the public domain and the HVAC research and development community. The results of the simulation are further scrutinized using exergy analysis to identify sources of systemic inefficiency, the root cause of lost work. This rigorous approach provides an exhaustive analysis of alternate low-GWP refrigerants to replace R410A using available compressors and system components, without compromising performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

According to the 2020 Climate Change Performance Index, Australia was ranked as the worst-performing country on climate change policy. The country has an ambivalent record of climate policy development as well as implementation, and has been criticized for its inaction. This paper considers why the country has been locked in climate policy "paralysis" through analyzing defining attributes of such a paralysis, and the tentative connections between domestic energy policies and international trade and development. We conducted a media content analysis of 222 articles and identified media narratives in three cases of energy projects in the country involving thermal coal exports, domestic renewable energy storage, and closure of a domestic coal power station. The analysis reveals that policy paralysis in Australian climate change policy can be traced back to the countervailing arguments that have been pervasive around domestic energy security, rural employment and international energy poverty. The political establishment has struggled to develop a sustainable consensus on climate change and the citizenry remains polarized. We also discuss how a "focusing event," such as a major natural disaster can break the impasse but this is only possible if energy security at home, energy poverty abroad and employment imperatives across the board are clearly delineated, measured and prioritized. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the last few decades, unheated attic spaces (so-called "cold attics") have been one of the most moisture-problematic spaces in the building practices of Europe and North America. Problems with such spaces are usually associated with condensation, frost formation, and mould growth on the lower surfaces of the roof deck. To solve these problems, a number of qualitative studies were performed. Although these studies revealed many important pieces of information, some of them are seemingly not in accordance with one another. Therefore, there has not yet been presented cold attic design which is suitable (especially moisture-safe) for the whole target region. The aim of this paper is to determine whether such a design can be determined or state the reasons why it is not possible. Based on a review of published studies, 38 cold attic designs were selected for detailed analysis. Their comparative parameters were established, quantified, and compared. The moisture-safeness of each design was evaluated using an original approach, and the designs were sorted into groups based on their similarities. Despite many uncertainties, it was found that the criteria for moisture-safe cold attic design in the target region can likely be stated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Accurate building physics performance analysis requires time-consuming, detailed modeling, and calculation time requirement. This paper evaluates the impact of model simplifications on thermal and visual comfort as well as energy performance. In the framework of dynamic zonal thermal simulation, a case study of a residential building in hot climate is investigated. A detailed model is created and simplified through four scenarios, by incrementally reducing the number of thermal zones from modeling every space as a separate zone to modeling the building as a single zone. The differences of total energy and comfort performance in the detailed and simplified models are analyzed to evaluate the grade of the simplifications' accuracy. The results indicate that all simplification scenarios present a marginal average deviation in total energy demand and thermal comfort by less than 20%. Combining rooms with similar thermal features into a zone presents the optimal scenario, while the worst scenario is the single-zone model. Results showed that thermal zone merging as a simulation simplification method has its limitations as well, whereas a too intensive simplification can lead to undesired error rates. The method is well applicable in further early-stage design and development tasks, specifically in large-scale projects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The operation feasibility of small hydropower plants in mountainous sites is subjected to the run-of-river flow, which is also dependent on a high variability in precipitation and snow cover. Moreover, the management of this kind of system has to be performed with some particular operation conditions of the plant (e.g., turbine minimum and maximum discharge) but also some environmental flow requirements. In this context, a technological climate service is conceived in a tight connection with end users, perfectly answering the needs of the management of small hydropower systems in a pilot area, and providing a forecast of the river streamflow together with other operation data. This paper presents an overview of the service but also a set of lessons learnt related to the features, requirements, and considerations to bear in mind from the point of view of climate service developers. In addition, the outcomes give insight into how this kind of service could change the traditional management (normally based on past experience), providing a probability range of the future river flow based on future weather scenarios according to the range of future weather possibilities. This highlights the utility of the co-generation process to implement climate services for water and energy fields but also that seasonal climate forecasting could improve the business as usual of this kind of facility. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Today, most countries in the world have mandatory regulations, more or less strict, regarding energy efficiency in buildings. However, a large percentage of the buildings already built were constructed under lax or non-existing regulations in this regard. Therefore, many countries are facing the energy refurbishment of their existing buildings to reduce their carbon footprint. Depending on ambient weather conditions where a building settles, its operation with respect to the achievement of maximum energy efficiency should usually be different. This happens in subtropical climates when, during the year and depending on the season, the building needs to conserve heat, evacuate it or even make an exchange with the outside to take advantage of favorable environmental conditions. This paper presents a complete methodology for conducting building energy efficiency refurbishments in subtropical climates in order to convert them into minimum energy buildings. The proposed methodology is illustrated by a case study in a dwelling that includes all the stages, from the analysis of the existing dwelling to the refurbishment works, showing the final results and the subsequent dwelling operation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Works of art are sensitive to environmental factors—mainly temperature and relative humidity—which, when stable, are generally recommended as ideal protection conditions, but in historical museum buildings, the required conditions are difficult to maintain, due to a lack of adequate heating, ventilation and air-conditioning systems. The paper presents the analysis of one-year measurements of temperature and relative humidity in three different museums in Poland. The aim of the research was to identify the risk to museum collections, due to unbalanced moisture loads and unstable indoor air temperatures, as well as to identify possible causes of fluctuations in these parameters. This article focuses on assessing the impact of variable external and internal loads on the hygrothermal parameters of indoor air. The profile of internal hygrothermal loads in exhibition halls varied over time, which resulted in a temporary variation of the indoor environmental parameters. The lack of appropriate systems, shaping the microclimate in the analyzed museums, and the lack of automatic control in existing devices did not allow to maintain the temperature and relative humidity within appropriate limits. In the museums, the maximum indoor temperature values were higher than those recommended in the requirements. Relative humidity values in all museums exceeded the recommended range both above and below. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on the European energy directives, the building sector has to provide comfortable levels for occupants with minimum energy consumption as well as to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. This paper aims to compare the impact of climate change on the energy performance of residential buildings in order to derive potential design strategies. Different climate file inputs of Madrid have been used to quantify comparatively the thermal needs of two reference residential buildings located in this city. One of them represents buildings older than 40 years built according to the applicable Spanish regulations prior to 1979. The other refers to buildings erected in the last decade under more energy-restrictive constructive regulations. Three different climate databases of Madrid have been used to assess the impact of the evolution of the climate in recent years on the thermal demands of these two reference buildings. Two of them are typical meteorological years (TMY) derived from weather data measured before 2000. On the contrary, the third one is an experimental file representing the average values of the meteorological variables registered in Madrid during the last decade. Annual and monthly comparisons are done between the three climate databases assessing the climate changes. Compared to the TMYs databases, the experimental one records an average air temperature of 1.8 °C higher and an average value of relative humidity that is 9% lower. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Photovoltaic-thermal (PVT) panels combine solar thermal and photovoltaic technologies and generate simultaneously both heat and electricity. This paper looks at the potential of integrating these systems into small domestic prosumer households for the climates of Bucharest, Romania, and Strasbourg, France. First, some brief background information on PVT systems and the concept of prosumers is introduced, highlighting their features as well as the solar energy market setting in Romania and France. Next, a PVT system is proposed for a given household consumer in Strasbourg and Bucharest with the variable weather conditions corresponding to the two locations. The PVT system and the coupled consumer are modelled in TRNSYS (v17, Thermal Energy System Specialists, Madison, USA). A performance analysis is carried out in order to establish the daily instantaneous energy output and the annual energy production. The results indicate a 10–12% better performance in Bucharest compared to Strasbourg due to slightly better weather conditions. The system efficiency was assessed through various methods (first law efficiency and primary energy saving). Depending on the method used, the location and time of year, the results vary from 15% for the first law efficiency to 90% for the primary energy saving efficiency. The most suitable efficiency assessment method for this study was found to be the primary energy saving method, as it takes into account the regional differences in energy production. This study concludes that the Romanian PVT market has a good potential for adopting the technology, especially since it is currently less mature than in France. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents the estimation of the wave energy potential around the Aegadian islands (Italy), carried out on the basis of high resolution wave hindcast. This reanalysis was developed employing Weather Research and Forecast (WRF) and WAVEWATCH III ® models for the modelling of the atmosphere and the waves, respectively. Wave climate has been determined using the above-mentioned 32-year dataset covering the years from 1979 to 2010. To improve the information about wave characteristics regarding spatial details, i.e., increasing wave model resolution, especially in the nearshore region around the islands, a SWAN (Simulating WAves Nearshore) wave propagation model was used. Results obtained through the development of the nearshore analysis detected four energetic hotspots close to the coast of the islands. Near Marettimo island, only one hotspot was detected with a maximum wave energy flux of 9 kW/m, whereas, around Favignana, three hotspots were identified with a maximum wave energy flux of 6.5 kW/m. Such values of available wave energy resource are promising to develop different projects for wave energy converters in specific areas along the coast, in order to improve the energetic independence of Aegadian islands. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A properly designed house should provide occupants with the high level of thermal comfort at low energy demand. On many occasions investors choose to add additional insulation to the buildings to reduce heat demand. This may lead to overheating of the building without a cooling system in summer periods (these prevail in Poland). Additionally, it affects the deterioration of thermal comfort, which can only be improved by increasing ventilation. The paper presents the multi-objective optimization of the selected design parameters in a single-family building in temperate climate conditions. The influence of four types of windows, their size, building orientation, insulation of external wall, roof and ground floor and infiltration on the life cycle costs and thermal comfort is analyzed for the building without cooling. Infiltration changes during the simulation and is controlled by a special controller. Its task is to imitate the behavior of occupants in changing the supply airflow. Optimal selection of the design parameters is carried out using Non-dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm II (NSGA-II) by coupling the building performance simulation program EnergyPlus with optimization environment. For the single-family house, optimal values of design variables for three different criteria are presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Solar radiation prediction is significant for solar energy utilization. This paper presents hybrid methods following the decomposition-prediction-reconfiguration paradigm using only historical radiation records with different combination of decomposition methods, Ensemble Empirical Mode Decomposition (EEMD) and Wavelet Analysis (WA), and the reconfiguration methods, regression model (RE) and Artificial Neural Network (ANN). The application in west China indicates that these hybrid decomposition-reconfiguration models perform well for monthly prediction, while the comparisons of the daily prediction show that the hybrid EEMD-RE model has a higher degree of fitting and a better prediction effect in long-term prediction of solar radiation intensity, which verifies (1) decomposition of original solar radiation data results in components with regular characteristics; (2) the relationship between the original solar radiation sequence and the derived intrinsic mode functions (IMFs) is linear; and (3) EEMD has strong adaptivity for non-linear and non-stationary series. The proposed hybrid decomposition-reconfiguration models have great application prospect for monthly long-term prediction of solar radiation intensity, especially in the areas where complex climate data is difficult to obtain, and the EEMD-RE model is recommended for the daily long-term prediction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding the pathway of carbon emissions is an important basis for establishing a national climate strategy. In this paper, the change in China’s economic carbon intensity since its accession to the World Trade Organization has been analyzed with a time series decomposition analysis method. Four phases with distinctive features are defined, and the significant fluctuations in China’s economic carbon intensity after 2001 are explained in detail. From the phase-average perspective, the contributions of major factors to the economic carbon intensity change have evolved steadily, instead of through highly volatile change on a yearly basis, and the gradual changes have been caused mainly by the development of the industrial sectors. Induced by the new normal in economic development, the change of China’s economic carbon intensity has entered a new phase driven by multiple factors with economic structural improvement being the most important contributor, as well as the continuingly, though decreasingly, important factor of energy efficiency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

After more than ten years of operation of EU-ETS trading, it is time to analyse the results and draw lessons from the experience. Economic research typically considers emission price as the main explanatory variables when measuring the effects of Emission Trading Systems. The novelty of this work is to analyse whether or not trade alone, as an institutional change, is effective in reducing greenhouse gases emissions. The objective of this paper is to analyse to what extent the EU-ETS as a “regulatory” instrument of the supply of allowances is responsible for the effectiveness of the carbon market as a basic tool in the reduction of emissions. The analysis also includes other overlapping policies aimed at fighting climate change, for example, the promotion of renewables. For the empirical analysis, an econometric model is estimated using panel data for the 28 European Union countries between 1990 and 2014. The econometric model include three dummy variables to measure the effectiveness of the three phases of the EU-ETS commerce in reducing emissions. Furthermore, we analyse how effective the phases are when renewables energies are included in the analysis. The results show that the EU-ETS is effective to reduce emissions and each phase has a greater impact on the reduction. Nevertheless, the system should be more flexible to adapt to the fluctuations in the demand for rights. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although national commitments to the Paris Climate Accord have waned, carbon mitigation by sub-national entities is on the rise globally. We examine the effectiveness of sub-national jurisdictions (e.g., states, provinces, cities) in collectively enacting greenhouse gas abatement strategies. We develop a simple model to explore the conditions under which an agreement among sub-national jurisdictions within a country may lead to substantial carbon abatement relative to a national policy determined through majority rule. We find that, in the absence of a functional national policy response, a coordinated sub-national agreement can generate meaningful abatement. This could form an important stopgap measure in the absence of better alternatives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There are several methods in the literature for the definition of weather data for building energy simulation and the most popular ones, such as typical meteorological years and European test reference years, are based on Finkelstein-Schafer statistics. However, even starting from the same multi-year weather data series, the developed reference years can present different levels of representativeness, which can affect the simulation outcome. In this work, we investigated to which extent the uncertainty in the determination of typical weather conditions can affect the results of building energy refurbishment when cost-optimal approach is implemented for the selection of energy efficiency measures by means of the NSGA-II genetic algorithm coupled with TRNSYS simulations. Six different reference years were determined for two north Italy climates, Trento and Monza, respectively in the Alpine and in the continental temperate regions. Four types of energy efficiency measures, related to both building envelope and HVAC system, were applied to six existing building typologies. Results showed how the choice of reference year can alter the shape of the Pareto fronts, the number of solutions included and the selection among the alternatives of the energy efficiency measures, for the entire front and, in particular, for energy and economic optima. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change policy and sustainable development issues and goals are closely intertwined. Recognizing the dual relationship between sustainable development and climate change points to a need for the exploration of actions that jointly address sustainable development and climate change. Technology transfer is considered an issue with growing interest worldwide and has been recognized as the key in supporting countries to achieve sustainable development, while addressing climate change challenges. This study presents an integrated decision support methodological framework for the formulation and evaluation of activities to promote technology transfer, as well as the provision of clear recommendations and strategies for framing specific policy in the context of climate change. The philosophy of the proposed approach, under the name: assess-identify-define (AID), consists of three components, where each one focuses on a particular problem. The methodology is integrated using appropriate tools in the information decision support system for effective technology transfer (DSS-ETT). The pilot application of the proposed methodology, in five representative developing countries, provided the possibility to evaluate the characteristics of the adopted methodology in terms of completeness, usability, extensionality, as well as analysis of results reliability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Massive deployment of renewables is considered as a decisive step in most countries' climate efforts. However, at the local scale, it is also perceived by many as a threat to their rich and diverse natural environment. With this perspective, we argue that this green versus green pseudo-dilemma highlights how crucial a broad societal buy-in is. New, transparent, participatory processes and mechanisms that are oriented toward social licensing can now be employed. A novel, integrative research agenda must orbit around co-creation to enable and promote resource co-management and co-ownership where possible, with increased consensus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Today, there is a great deal of emphasis on reducing energy use in buildings for both economic and environmental reasons. Investors strongly encourage the insulating of buildings. Buildings without cooling systems can lead to a deterioration in thermal comfort, even in transitional climate areas. In this article, the effectiveness of natural ventilation in a passive cooling building is analyzed. Two options are considered: cooling with external air supplied to the building by fans, or by opening windows (automatically or by residents). In both cases, fuzzy controllers for the cooling time and supply airflow control are proposed and optimized. The analysis refers to a typical Polish single-family building. Simulations are made with the use of the EnergyPlus program, and the model is validated based on indoor temperature measurement. The calculations were carried out for different climate data: standard and future (warmed) weather data. Research has shown that cooling with external air can effectively improve thermal comfort with a slight increase in heating demand. However, to be able to reach the potential of such a solution, fans should be used. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of the article is to present the most important elements to be implemented in the European Union energy policy in the 2030 perspective in the context of sustainable development of the Member States. The solution to the too high emissivity of individual economies in the European Union is the energy mix, which will establish a compromise in the so-called the triad of EU policy goals. This is undoubtedly a current climate challenge for the modern world, which also has a direct impact on the economic situation of EU countries. The basis of the presented considerations and recommendations is a literature review on the subject and a statistical analysis of empirical data of the largest statistical organizations in the EU and the world. The starting point for the analysis is the assessment of the state of the energy sector in the EU. Therefore, the goals and tasks until 2030 result from many conditions of the energy sector. The article provides recommendations for the EU on future climate and energy policy, analysing the practices of member countries empirical and data compiled by the world's largest organizations and institutions, such as the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), the World Nuclear Association (WNA), Eurostat, and the International Energy Agency (IEA). The strategic goals of the EU climate and energy policy presented in the study show the necessary challenges for the implementation of sustainable development in the analyzed sector, which is the driving force of world economies. The conclusions were presented in accordance with the current economic efficiency of various energy sources and the necessity to seek a compromise among the so-called a triad of goals defined in EU policy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Due to market failures that allow uncompensated negative externalities from burning fossil fuels, there has been a growing call for climate change-related litigation targeting polluting companies. To determine the most intensive carbon dioxide (CO2)-emitting facilities in order prioritize liability for climate lawsuits, and risk mitigation strategies for identified companies as well as their insurers and investors, two methods are compared: (1) the conventional point-source method and (2) the proposed bottleneck method, which considers all emissions that a facility enables rather than only what it emits. Results indicate that the top ten CO2 emission bottlenecks in the U.S. are predominantly oil (47%) and natural gas (44%) pipelines. Compared to traditional point-source emissions methods, this study has demonstrated that a comprehensive bottleneck calculation is more effective. By employing an all-inclusive approach to calculating a polluting entity's CO2 emissions, legal actions may be more accurately focused on major polluters, and these companies may preemptively mitigate their pollution to curb vulnerability to litigation and risk. The bottleneck methodology reveals the discrete link in the chain of the fossil-fuel lifecycle that is responsible for the largest amount of emissions, enabling informed climate change mitigation and risk management efforts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With increasing mean and extreme temperatures due to climate change, it becomes necessary to use—not only future typical conditions—but future heatwaves in building thermal simulations as well. Future typical weather files are widespread, but few researchers have put together methodologies to reproduce future extreme conditions. Furthermore, climate uncertainties need to be considered and it is often difficult due to the lack of data accessibility. In this article, we propose a methodology to re-assemble future weather files—ready-to-use for building simulations—using data from the European Coordinated Regional Downscaling Experiment (EURO-CORDEX) dynamically downscaled regional climate multi-year projections. It is the first time that this database is used to assemble weather files for building simulations because of its recent availability. Two types of future weather files are produced: typical weather years (TWY) and heatwave events (HWE). Combined together, they can be used to fully assess building resilience to overheating in future climate conditions. A case study building in Paris is modelled to compare the impact of the different weather files on the indoor operative temperature of the building. The results confirm that it is better to use multiple types of future weather files, climate models, and or scenarios to fully grasp climate projection uncertainties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The building sector contributes approximately one third of the total energy consumption worldwide. A large part of this energy is used for the heating and cooling of buildings, which can be drastically reduced by use of energy-efficient glazing. In this study, we performed building energy simulations on a prototypical residential building, and compared commercially available static (low-e, solar IR blocking) to newly developed adaptive thermochromic glazing systems for various climate regions. The modeling results show that static energy-efficient glazing is mainly optimized for either hot climates, where low solar heat gain can reduce cooling demands drastically, or cold climates, where low-e properties have a huge influence on heating demands. For intermediate climates, we demonstrate that adaptive thermochromic glazing in combination with a low-e coating is perfectly suited. The newly developed thermochromic glazing can lead to annual energy consumption improvement of up to 22% in comparison to clear glass, which exceeds all other glazing systems. Furthermore, we demonstrate that in the Netherlands the use of this new glazing system can lead to annual cost savings of EU 638 per dwelling (172 m2, 25% window façade), and to annual nationwide CO2 savings of 4.5 Mt. Ergo, we show that further development of thermochromic smart windows into market-ready products can have a huge economic, ecological and societal impact on all intermediate climate region in the northern hemisphere. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the Renewable Energy Directive 2018/2001 (RED II), adopted in December 2018, the EU is continuing the political framework for the use of renewable energy sources in the transport sector for the period from 2021 to 2030. At the same time, the German federal government has set a target of reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in the transport sector by at least 40% to 42% by 2030 compared to the 1990 GHG level. To investigate the possible effects of the European and national requirements on the German GHG quota, cost-optimal fuel mixes were modelled to achieve the GHG targets of 26 fuel options in each of the nine different scenarios. The results show clear differences between the scenarios that implement the RED II targets (including 14% renewables in transport by 2030) and those that implement the climate protection target (40–42% GHG reduction compared to 1990 by 2030). If only the minimum requirements of RED II are met, the German climate protection target is clearly missed without further measures. In order to achieve the climate protection target, a significant reduction in the final energy consumption in transport is required, as well as a very high GHG quota of 34.5%, meaning a high proportion of renewables of ca. 40% and using almost all the fuel options considered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated the adaptations of traditional dwellings to the complex regional microclimate in southern Zhejiang, China. Typical traditional dwellings in a village in the foothills and a village on the mid-slopes of Zhejiang's alpine region were selected to study traditional construction strategies for climate responsiveness and the comfort level of indoor environments during the very humid plum rain season in early summer. Fundamental analysis of the climate and architecture, a response analysis of the dwelling form, an occupants' comfort satisfaction survey, and field measurements of indoor and outdoor thermal environmental parameters were performed. The traditional dwellings and their design strategies for various regional environmental factors were explored from the perspective of (1) regional climate-adaptive strategies, (2) the thermal, airflow, lighting, and acoustic qualities of the indoor environment, and (3) the occupants' indoor environment satisfaction. The results indicated that traditional dwellings in southern Zhejiang incorporate strategies of various effectiveness in ensuring indoor comfort. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In order to assess the merits of national climate change mitigation policies, it is important to have a reasonable benchmark for how much human-caused global warming would occur over the coming century with "Business-As-Usual" (BAU) conditions. However, currently, policymakers are limited to making assessments by comparing the Global Climate Model (GCM) projections of future climate change under various different "scenarios", none of which are explicitly defined as BAU. Moreover, all of these estimates are ab initio computer model projections, and policymakers do not currently have equivalent empirically derived estimates for comparison. Therefore, estimates of the total future human-caused global warming from the three main greenhouse gases of concern (CO2, CH4, and N2O) up to 2100 are here derived for BAU conditions. A semi-empirical approach is used that allows direct comparisons between GCM-based estimates and empirically derived estimates. If the climate sensitivity to greenhouse gases implies a Transient Climate Response (TCR) of ≥ 2.5 °C or an Equilibrium Climate Sensitivity (ECS) of ≥ 5.0 °C then the 2015 Paris Agreement's target of keeping human-caused global warming below 2.0 °C will have been broken by the middle of the century under BAU. However, for a TCR < 1.5 °C or ECS < 2.0 °C, the target would not be broken under BAU until the 22nd century or later. Therefore, the current Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) "likely" range estimates for TCR of 1.0 to 2.5 °C and ECS of 1.5 to 4.5 °C have not yet established if human-caused global warming is a 21st century problem. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Photovoltaic (PV) systems are the cheapest source of electricity in sunny locations and nearly all European countries. However, the fast deployment of PV systems around the world is bringing uncertainty to the PV community in terms of the reliability and long-term performance of PV modules under different climatic stresses, such as irradiation, temperature changes, and humidity. Methodologies and models to estimate the annual degradation rates of PV modules have been studied in the past, yet, an evaluation of the issue at global scale has not been addressed so far. Hereby, we process the ERA5 climate re-analysis dataset to extract and model the climatic stresses necessary for the calculation of degradation rates. These stresses are then applied to evaluate three degradation mechanisms (hydrolysis-degradation, thermomechanical-degradation, and photo- degradation) and the total degradation rate of PV modules due to the combination of temperature, humidity, and ultraviolet irradiation. Further on, spatial distribution of the degradation rates worldwide is computed and discussed proving direct correlation with the Köppen-Geiger-Photovoltaic climate zones, showing that the typical value considered for the degradation rate on PV design and manufacturer warranties (i.e., 0.5%/a) can vary ± 0.3%/a in the temperate zones of Europe and rise up to 1.5%/a globally. The mapping of degradation mechanisms and total degradation rates is provided for a monocrystalline silicon PV module. Additionally, we analyze the temporal evolution of degradation rates, where a global degradation rate is introduced and its dependence on global ambient temperature demonstrated. Finally, the categorization of degradation rates is made for Europe and worldwide to facilitate the understanding of the climatic stresses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nowadays, awareness concerning the need to use energy efficiently is increasing significantly worldwide, thus, improving the energy efficiency levels in the building sector has acquired high importance because of their energy saving potential. However, several intervention options are available to achieve high energy efficiency levels in buildings, and the choice must be made considering the efficiency of the solution and the costs involved. Considering this, the present research aimed to develop a parametric study of several energy retrofit solutions for buildings located in the hot-humid climate of Paraguay, in order to analyse their efficiency in terms of comfort rates and cooling energy needs. Furthermore, the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) is employed as a decision-making method to choose the most suitable intervention considering the investment costs required. Thus, threshold values of thermal transmittance for the building thermal envelope components are established through a parametric study and sensitivity analysis of the simulations results. Considering that Paraguay does not have national building energy codes, the outcomes of this research will constitute a support and contribute for the thermal parameters regulation of buildings aiding to improve the energy efficiency of Paraguayan buildings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Gazing at natural landscapes and participating in agricultural activities can elicit psychophysiological restoration. However, most buildings are constructed merely to meet the minimum legal requirements for structure weight load. Extensive green roofs consisting of vegetables and a lightweight growth medium can be designed to provide not only passive-cooling effects on bare rooftops, but also to convert idle rooftops into temporary retreats for stressed individuals. The purpose of this study is to both measure the surface temperature reduction and heat amplitude reduction of a bare rooftop using the extensive green roofs containing a lightweight expanded clay aggregate (LECA) and Ipomoea batata as well as conduct a weight-reduction-and-cost analysis to measure the weight loss of the extensive green roofs incurred through LECA replacement. A four-stage field experiment was performed on the flat rooftop of a dormitory in a subtropical climate during summer. The results indicated that roofs with Ipomoea batata had a significantly higher passive-cooling effect than did roofs without Ipomoea batata. The roofs with 10%–40% LECA exhibited a slightly higher passive-cooling effect than did roofs with conventional garden soil. At a slightly different average air temperature (0.56 °C; i.e., 32.04 °C minus 31.48 °C), the combined effects of LECA and Ipomoea batata helped to significantly reduce the average temperature of the bare rooftop by an additional 10.19 °C, namely, temperature reduction of the bare rooftop increased from 9.54 °C under a roof with 0% LECA and without plants in the second stage to 19.73 °C under a roof with 10% LECA and with plants in the fourth stage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Accurate wind speed prediction plays a crucial role on the routine operational management of wind farms. However, the irregular characteristics of wind speed time series makes it hard to predict accurately. This study develops a novel forecasting strategy for multi-step wind speed forecasting (WSF) and illustrates its effectiveness. During the WSF process, a two-stage signal decomposition method combining ensemble empirical mode decomposition (EEMD) and variational mode decomposition (VMD) is exploited to decompose the empirical wind speed data. The EEMD algorithm is firstly employed to disassemble wind speed data into several intrinsic mode function (IMFs) and one residual (Res). The highest frequency component, IMF1, obtained by EEMD is further disassembled into different modes by the VMD algorithm. Then, feature selection is applied to eliminate the illusive components in the input-matrix predetermined by partial autocorrelation function (PACF) and the parameters in the proposed wavelet neural network (WNN) model are optimized for improving the forecasting performance, which are realized by hybrid backtracking search optimization algorithm (HBSA) integrating binary-valued BSA (BBSA) with real-valued BSA (RBSA), simultaneously. Combinations of Morlet function and Mexican hat function by weighted coefficient are constructed as activation functions for WNN, namely DAWNN, to enhance its regression performance. In the end, the final WSF values are obtained by assembling the prediction results of each decomposed components. Two sets of actual wind speed data are applied to evaluate and analyze the proposed forecasting strategy. Forecasting results, comparisons, and analysis illustrate that the proposed EEMD/VMD-HSBA-DAWNN is an effective model when employed in multi-step WSF. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main purpose of this study is to evaluate the applicability of a liquid desiccant and evaporative cooling-assisted 100% outdoor air system (LD-IDECOAS) in six typical cities in China. The six cities are located in different climatic zones in China and are selected because they are comparable owing to the outdoor air conditions. Many studies have shown that the annual operating energy consumption of LD-IDECOAS is nearly half compared with the conventional variable air volume (VAV) system. Because the climate characteristics of the six selected cities were different, the appropriate mode of operation of the LD-IDECAOS was applied to each studied city, and energy simulations were performed. Based on the design conditions of each region, the required cooling and heating loads were calculated for office buildings using transient system simulations (TRNSYS) 17, and the performance of the LD-IDECOAS and its energy consumption were simulated with a commercial engineering equation solver (EES) program. Depending on the climate characteristics of each city, adequate modifications were evaluated with simulations in terms of energy consumption. The proposed system was compared with the VAV system and the evaporative cooling assisted 100% outdoor air-conditioning system (IDECOAS) for detailed simulation results in the effort to evaluate the energy-saving potential. Finally, the results show that the proposed system saves considerable energy over conventional VAV systems and, in summer, the applications save even more energy than IDECOAS. However, there is a slight difference between the different geographical regions in terms of the annual operating energy consumption. In summary, the proposed system can yield significant energy-saving benefits in hot and humid regions whereas, in dry regions, the proposed system is more applicable in the summer. Consequently, LD-IDECOAS can be adopted for different climatic zones as a heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC) system by introducing 100% outdoor air. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This work, developed under the EuroPruning Project, aims to look at relations between pruning biomass production and several factors related both to crop species and management. The aim is to find out mathematical relations that allow improvement of the biomass potential assessment. This is generally calculated using biomass production ratios. These ratios are variable due to the influence of several aspects. On the one hand there are crop characteristics—such as species, cultivar, and age—and on the other, crop management, which is often associated to local habits and conditions such as the training system, planting pattern, density, pruning methods, irrigation and climate. This work has been produced by gathering data from literature reviews and surveying. The subset of Italian records in the EuroPruning database consists of 70 records. Each record contains the biomass production ratio and eight agronomic variables. Additionally, a set of six climatic and agro-climatic groups of variables (in total 28 variables) have been added to each record. Moderate to good correlations have been found, especially with few climatic factors. As a result, two regression models are proposed for the evaluation of the vineyard and olive tree pruning biomass ratios for Italy, and applied to assess pruning biomass potential. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study a robust method enabling one to compare the energy performance in different climates was developed. Derived normalization factors allow “to move” the building from one climate to another with corresponding changes in heating, cooling, and electric lighting energy. Degree days, solar-air temperature and economic insulation thickness were used to normalize space heating and cooling needs. Solar-air temperature based degree days resulted in 5% accuracy in space heating and dry-bulb air temperature based cooling degree days were trustworthy in cooling need normalization. To overcome the limitation of the same thermal insulation in all climates, an economic insulation thickness was applied. Existing and nearly zero energy requirements were contrasted in four countries with a reference office building to analyze the impacts of climate and national regulation on primary energy use. By applying standard energy calculation input data and primary energy factors from European standards to buildings with national technical solutions, nearly zero energy building requirements comparison with European Commission benchmarks was possible to conduct. Generally, in Central and North Europe comparison, national input data caused much more difference than the climate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The following article conducts an analysis of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Fifth Assessment Report (AR5), specifically in relation to Integrated Assessment Models (IAMs). We focus on the key drivers of economic growth, how these are derived and whether IAMs properly reflect the underlying biophysical systems. Since baseline IAM scenarios project a three- to eight-fold increase in gross domestic product (GDP)-per-capita by 2100, but with consumption losses of only between 3–11%, strong mitigation seems compatible with economic growth. However, since long-term productivity and economic growth are uncertain, they are included as exogenous parameters in IAM scenarios. The biophysical economics perspective is that GDP and productivity growth are in fact emergent parameters from the economic-biophysical system. If future energy systems were to possess worse biophysical performance characteristics, we would expect lower productivity and economic growth, and therefore, the price of reaching emission targets may be significantly costlier than projected. Here, we show that IAMs insufficiently describe the energy-economy nexus and propose that those key parameters are integrated as feedbacks with the use of environmentally-extended input-output analysis (EEIOA). Further work is required to build a framework that can supplement and support IAM analysis to improve biophysical rigour. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]